From dc8e26403b04ef0d4606a312b1ca5c44d46649ef Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Evgeniy Unzhakov Date: Mon, 5 Oct 2026 22:53:47 +0300 Subject: [PATCH] docs: prune research vault to theory-only scope Remove gA-extraction notes, nuclear-structure notes, paper-summary refs, detector-response correction note and the finished test migration checklist. Rewrite the vault index for the single-package theory calculator; repoint dangling wiki-links in surviving notes to inline citations; refresh docs_check.py (drop bs_exp CLI check, register removed files). Literature and nuclear-structure research resumes in dedicated projects; the removed notes are recoverable from history. --- TODO.md | 44 +- docs/00-beta-spectrum-overview.md | 8 +- docs/02-phase-space.md | 4 +- docs/README.md | 41 +- docs/corrections/02-finite-size.md | 6 +- docs/corrections/04-exchange.md | 2 +- docs/corrections/05-radiative.md | 2 +- docs/corrections/06-recoil.md | 2 +- docs/corrections/07-detector-response.md | 181 --- docs/gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm.md | 172 -- docs/gA-extraction/02-ssnme.md | 106 -- docs/gA-extraction/03-tc99-case-study.md | 105 -- docs/gA-extraction/04-implementation-todo.md | 175 --- docs/nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors.md | 127 -- docs/nuclear-structure/index.md | 29 - ...in_general_properties_of_em_corrections.md | 301 ---- .../1986_Sirlin_verification_of_CVC.md | 209 --- ...1987_Sirlin_remarks_on_OZa2_corrections.md | 210 --- ...lin_radiative_correction_to_nu_spectrum.md | 207 --- .../2017_Hayen_analytical_beta_shape.md | 1399 ----------------- .../2019_Hayen_first_forbidden_transitions.md | 192 --- .../2024_Paulsen_T99_beta_spectrum.md | 475 ------ .../2025_Song_tc99_measurement_for_g_v.md | 176 --- docs/test-migration-todo.md | 164 -- scripts/docs_check.py | 30 +- 25 files changed, 57 insertions(+), 4310 deletions(-) delete mode 100644 docs/corrections/07-detector-response.md delete mode 100644 docs/gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm.md delete mode 100644 docs/gA-extraction/02-ssnme.md delete mode 100644 docs/gA-extraction/03-tc99-case-study.md delete mode 100644 docs/gA-extraction/04-implementation-todo.md delete mode 100644 docs/nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors.md delete mode 100644 docs/nuclear-structure/index.md delete mode 100644 docs/refs/electromagnetic/1967_Sirlin_general_properties_of_em_corrections.md delete mode 100644 docs/refs/electromagnetic/1986_Sirlin_verification_of_CVC.md delete mode 100644 docs/refs/electromagnetic/1987_Sirlin_remarks_on_OZa2_corrections.md delete mode 100644 docs/refs/electromagnetic/2011_Sirlin_radiative_correction_to_nu_spectrum.md delete mode 100644 docs/refs/electromagnetic/2017_Hayen_analytical_beta_shape.md delete mode 100644 docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2019_Hayen_first_forbidden_transitions.md delete mode 100644 docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2024_Paulsen_T99_beta_spectrum.md delete mode 100644 docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2025_Song_tc99_measurement_for_g_v.md delete mode 100644 docs/test-migration-todo.md diff --git a/TODO.md b/TODO.md index ff64b0e..84a9ae0 100644 --- a/TODO.md +++ b/TODO.md @@ -13,28 +13,28 @@ ______________________________________________________________________ Single distributable, `beta_spectrum`: ``` -beta_spectrum/ ← theory-only core -├── __init__.py -├── base.py ← SpectrumComponent base -├── constants.py ← physical constants -├── utils.py ← T_to_W, W_to_T, momentum -├── spectrum.py ← BetaSpectrum, SpectrumConfig, BranchConfig -├── nuclear_data.py ← paceENSDF integration + JSON input -├── cli.py ← bs_pnpi command-line interface -├── logging_utils.py ← structured logging helpers -├── components/ ← individual correction factors -│ ├── phase_space.py -│ ├── fermi.py -│ ├── finite_size.py -│ ├── screening.py -│ ├── exchange.py -│ └── radiative.py -├── data/ -│ └── exchange_coeff.csv ← X(Z,W) fit coefficients, Z=2..120 -└── output/ ← visualization, CSV export - ├── core.py ← BetaSpectrumAnalyzer - ├── csv_export.py ← CSVEmitter - └── visualization.py ← Visualizer, parse_spectrum_csv +beta_spectrum/ ← theory-only core package +│ ├── __init__.py ← public API +│ ├── base.py ← SpectrumComponent base +│ ├── constants.py ← physical constants +│ ├── utils.py ← T_to_W, W_to_T, momentum +│ ├── spectrum.py ← BetaSpectrum, SpectrumConfig, BranchConfig +│ ├── nuclear_data.py ← paceENSDF integration + JSON input +│ ├── cli.py ← bs_pnpi command-line interface +│ ├── logging_utils.py ← structured logging helpers +│ ├── components/ ← individual correction factors +│ │ ├── phase_space.py +│ │ ├── fermi.py +│ │ ├── finite_size.py +│ │ ├── screening.py +│ │ ├── exchange.py +│ │ └── radiative.py +│ ├── data/ +│ │ └── exchange_coeff.csv +│ └── output/ ← visualization, CSV export subpackage +│ ├── core.py ← BetaSpectrumAnalyzer +│ ├── csv_export.py ← CSVEmitter +│ └── visualization.py ← Visualizer, parse_spectrum_csv ``` ### Rationale diff --git a/docs/00-beta-spectrum-overview.md b/docs/00-beta-spectrum-overview.md index 487884f..8d0547d 100644 --- a/docs/00-beta-spectrum-overview.md +++ b/docs/00-beta-spectrum-overview.md @@ -36,8 +36,8 @@ $$N(W)\,dW = \frac{G_V^2 V_{ud}^2}{2\pi^3} F_0 L_0 U DFS R R_N Q S X r C D_C \; | $X(Z,W)$ | Atomic exchange effect | [[corrections/04-exchange]] | ✓ | | $r(Z,W)$ | Atomic mismatch / overlap | [[corrections/08-atomic-overlap]] | — | | $A(Z,W) = S \cdot X \cdot r$ | Combined atomic factors | [[corrections/08-atomic-overlap]] | — | -| $C(Z,W)$ | Nuclear structure shape factor | [[nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors]] | — | -| $D_C(Z,W,\beta^2)$ | Nuclear deformation (convolution) | [[nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors]] | — | +| $C(Z,W)$ | Nuclear structure shape factor | external nuclear-structure theory (out of scope) | — | +| $D_C(Z,W,\beta^2)$ | Nuclear deformation (convolution) | external nuclear-structure theory (out of scope) | — | ## Baseline: Phase Space @@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ with $p = \sqrt{W^2-1}$, $W$ total energy in units of $m_e$, and $W_0$ the endpo ## Precision Goal -The Hayen paper achieves **accurate to a few parts in $10^{-4}$ down to 1 keV** for low-to-medium $Z$ nuclei — extending previous work by nearly an order of magnitude [[refs/electromagnetic/2017_Hayen_analytical_beta_shape/summary]]. +The Hayen paper achieves **accurate to a few parts in $10^{-4}$ down to 1 keV** for low-to-medium $Z$ nuclei — extending previous work by nearly an order of magnitude (Hayen et al., *Rev. Mod. Phys.* **90**, 015008 (2018)). > [!key] Why this matters > A precision of ~0.5% is required when determining the Fierz term $b_{\text{Fierz}}$ to improve limits on BSM scalar/tensor couplings. Weak magnetism $b_{wm}$ must be included as experimental precision increases, otherwise it limits BSM sensitivity. @@ -90,4 +90,4 @@ Each correction factor $C_i(W)$ is a callable class inheriting from `SpectrumCom N(W) = PhaseSpace(W0) × FermiFunction(Z) × FiniteSizeL0(Z,A) × ... ``` -Configuration toggles are defined in `SpectrumConfig` (spectrum.py). See [[README]] for architecture details. +Configuration toggles are defined in `SpectrumConfig` (spectrum.py). See the [vault overview](README.md) for architecture details. diff --git a/docs/02-phase-space.md b/docs/02-phase-space.md index a5e2b59..e58f1b0 100644 --- a/docs/02-phase-space.md +++ b/docs/02-phase-space.md @@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ $$K(W) = \sqrt{\frac{N(W)}{p W F(Z,W)}} \approx W_0 - W \quad (\text{linear for Deviations from linearity near the endpoint indicate: - Non-zero neutrino mass - Weak magnetism / recoil effects ([[corrections/06-recoil]]) -- New physics (Fierz term [[Hayen2017_summary#The Fierz Interference Term]]) +- New physics (Fierz interference term; see Hayen et al., *Rev. Mod. Phys.* **90**, 015008 (2018)) ## Calculator Implementation @@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ The `PhaseSpace` calculator accepts a `transition_type` parameter that determine | `F2U`, `F3` | 2, 3 | $p_\nu^4 + \frac{3}{10}p_\nu^2 p_e^2 + p_e^4$ | | `F3U`, `F4` | 3, 4 | $p_\nu^6 + 7p_\nu^4 p_e^2 + 7p_\nu^2 p_e^4 + p_e^6$ | -The forbidden factor modifies the energy dependence of the spectrum, becoming significant at higher electron energies. See `[[nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors]]` for the full shape factor treatment. +The forbidden factor modifies the energy dependence of the spectrum, becoming significant at higher electron energies. The full nuclear shape factor $C(Z,W)$ is external nuclear-structure theory, out of scope for this repository: the calculator treats the forbiddenness classes above as input configuration. ## Energy Range diff --git a/docs/README.md b/docs/README.md index dc57c72..5db3743 100644 --- a/docs/README.md +++ b/docs/README.md @@ -8,17 +8,13 @@ status: active # Beta Spectrum Calculator — Knowledge Base -This Obsidian vault serves as the scientific reference and development workspace for the **beta-spectrum calculator** project (`beta_shape_pnpi`). +This Obsidian vault is the scientific reference behind the **beta-spectrum shape calculator** (`beta_spectrum`). Since v0.5.0 the repository is dedicated solely to high-precision spectrum-shape *calculation*: detector response, data calibration, and fitting/extraction analyses are separate projects, and their literature was removed from this vault. ## Purpose Organize the physics theory behind β-decay spectrum calculations into structured, interconnected notes that inform the implementation of correction components in the codebase. -## Source Material - -| Reference | Type | Location | -|---|---|---| -| Hayen et al., *Rev. Mod. Phys.* **90**, 015008 (2017) | Review article | [[refs/electromagnetic/2017_Hayen_analytical_beta_shape/summary]] | +Key external references (cited inline in the notes): Hayen et al., *Rev. Mod. Phys.* **90**, 015008 (2018); Sirlin (1967–2011); Hayen et al., *J. Phys. G* (2019) on first-forbidden transitions. Nuclear-structure shape-factor theory is external to this repository. ## Directory Structure @@ -27,6 +23,7 @@ docs/ ├── README.md ← You are here ├── 00-beta-spectrum-overview.md ← Master equation & full correction list ├── 02-phase-space.md ← Baseline spectral shape +├── test-architecture.md ← Test organization & strategy ├── corrections/ ← All correction components │ ├── 01-fermi-function.md ← Fermi function F₀(Z,W) │ ├── 02-finite-size.md ← Nuclear size: L₀, U, DFS @@ -34,21 +31,9 @@ docs/ │ ├── 04-exchange.md ← Atomic exchange X(Z,W) │ ├── 05-radiative.md ← Outer radiative R(W,W₀) │ ├── 06-recoil.md ← Recoil: R_N, Q, weak magnetism -│ ├── 07-detector-response.md ← Detector convolution │ ├── 08-atomic-overlap.md ← Atomic mismatch r(Z,W) │ └── 09-chemical-effects.md ← Molecular environment -├── nuclear-structure/ ← Nuclear theory -│ ├── index.md ← Overview -│ └── 01-shape-factors.md ← C(Z,W), NMEs, impulse approximation -├── gA-extraction/ ← gA extraction (new, in development) -│ ├── 01-ssm-algorithm.md ← SSM step-by-step algorithm -│ ├── 02-ssnme.md ← sNME and ESSM formalism -│ ├── 03-tc99-case-study.md ← 99Tc literature results -│ └── 04-implementation-todo.md ← Implementation TODO list -└── refs/ ← Paper summaries - ├── electromagnetic/ ← CVC, radiative corrections - ├── forbidden-decay/ ← Forbidden decay studies - └── (organized by topic) +└── (refs removed; literature research resumes in dedicated projects) ``` ## Calculator Architecture @@ -62,10 +47,10 @@ SpectrumComponent (ABC, base.py) ├── ScreeningCorrection → corrections/03-screening.md ├── ExchangeCorrection → corrections/04-exchange.md ├── RadiativeCorrection → corrections/05-radiative.md - └── (recoil.py) → corrections/06-recoil.md (not yet implemented) + └── (recoil component) → corrections/06-recoil.md (not yet implemented) BetaSpectrum (spectrum.py) — multiplicative composition + from_config() -BetaSpectrumAnalyzer (spectrum.py) — plotting, CSV export +BetaSpectrumAnalyzer (output/core.py) — plotting, CSV export ``` ## Correction Implementation Status @@ -79,15 +64,9 @@ BetaSpectrumAnalyzer (spectrum.py) — plotting, CSV export | 5 | Exchange | `exchange.py` | Atomic exchange | ✓ implemented | | 6 | Radiative | `radiative.py` | Outer RC | ✓ implemented | | 7 | Recoil | `recoil.py` | R_N, Q, weak magnetism | ✗ not yet implemented | -| 8 | Shape factor | `shape_factor_gA.py` | C(Z,W) for forbidden | — planned | -| 9 | Detector | `detector_response.py` | Convolution | — planned | - -## gA Extraction (New) - -For forbidden nonunique decays (e.g., $^{99}\text{Tc}$), the shape factor depends on $g_A$ in a measurable way. See: - -- [[gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm]] — The SSM algorithm for extracting $g_A$ from spectral shapes -- [[gA-extraction/04-implementation-todo]] — Step-by-step implementation plan +| 8 | Shape factor | — | C(Z,W) is an input parameter (external nuclear-structure theory) | out of scope | +| 9 | Atomic overlap | — | r(Z,W) | documentation only | +| 10 | Chemical effects | — | molecular environment | documentation only | ## Key Variables and Units @@ -102,4 +81,4 @@ Conversion: $W = 1 + T / m_e c^2$, with $m_e c^2 = 510.998950$ keV. ## Precision Goal -The calculator aims for **accurate to a few parts in $10^{-4}$ down to 1 keV** for low-to-medium $Z$ nuclei, following the approach of Hayen et al. (2017). +The calculator aims for **accurate to a few parts in $10^{-4}$ down to 1 keV** for low-to-medium $Z$ nuclei, following the approach of Hayen et al. (2018). diff --git a/docs/corrections/02-finite-size.md b/docs/corrections/02-finite-size.md index 63b6693..914e7f7 100644 --- a/docs/corrections/02-finite-size.md +++ b/docs/corrections/02-finite-size.md @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ tags: status: active aliases: [Finite Nuclear Size, L_0, U, DFS] cssclasses: [] -related_components: [[corrections/01-fermi-function]], [[nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors]] +related_components: [[corrections/01-fermi-function]] --- # Finite Nuclear Size Effects — $L_0$, $U(Z,W)$, and $DFS$ @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ The Fermi function ([[corrections/01-fermi-function]]) assumes a point charge nu > [!note] Two types of "finite size" > 1. **Electrostatic** ($L_0$, $U$, $DFS$): Potential difference when moving from point charge to realistic nuclear shape — applied *after* evaluating wave function at origin -> 2. **Convolution**: Integration of leptonic wave functions over the nuclear volume — appears in shape factor $C(Z,W)$ ([[nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors]]) +> 2. **Convolution**: Integration of leptonic wave functions over the nuclear volume — appears in the nuclear structure shape factor $C(Z,W)$ (external theory, out of scope here) ## Nuclear Radius @@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ $$DFS(Z,W,\beta) = \frac{L_0^*(Z,W)}{L_0(Z,W)} \tag{40}$$ where $L_0^*$ integrates over a continuous superposition of uniformly charged spheres (Eq. 39). > [!tip] Magnitude -> Effect can reach several parts in $10^3$. Partially canceled by nuclear structure deformation correction $D_C$ ([[nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors]]). Figure 1 of Hayen shows energy dependence reversal between β⁻ and β⁺ for $\beta_2 = 0.2$. +> Effect can reach several parts in $10^3$. Partially canceled by nuclear structure deformation correction $D_C$ (external theory, out of scope here). Figure 1 of Hayen shows energy dependence reversal between β⁻ and β⁺ for $\beta_2 = 0.2$. ### Calculator Implementation diff --git a/docs/corrections/04-exchange.md b/docs/corrections/04-exchange.md index 510741d..662f163 100644 --- a/docs/corrections/04-exchange.md +++ b/docs/corrections/04-exchange.md @@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ Screening strength is adjusted for best agreement with bound state energies (dec ## Analytical Parametrisation — Hayen et al. 2018 -The exchange correction $X(W)$ as a function of kinetic energy uses empirical fit coefficients from Table X of [[refs/electromagnetic/2017_Hayen_analytical_beta_shape/summary]]. Coefficients are tabulated for all atoms with $Z = 2$ through $z = 120$. +The exchange correction $X(W)$ as a function of kinetic energy uses empirical fit coefficients from Table X of Hayen et al., *Rev. Mod. Phys.* **90**, 015008 (2018). Coefficients are tabulated for all atoms with $Z = 2$ through $z = 120$. ### Shell Structure Effects diff --git a/docs/corrections/05-radiative.md b/docs/corrections/05-radiative.md index b15b4e6..36e4f81 100644 --- a/docs/corrections/05-radiative.md +++ b/docs/corrections/05-radiative.md @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ tags: status: active aliases: [Outer Radiative, δ_R, Sirlin Function] cssclasses: [] - related_components: \[[10-nuclear-structure]\], \[[07-recoil-effects]\] + related_components: [[corrections/06-recoil]] ______________________________________________________________________ diff --git a/docs/corrections/06-recoil.md b/docs/corrections/06-recoil.md index 48b11b5..7cd79fc 100644 --- a/docs/corrections/06-recoil.md +++ b/docs/corrections/06-recoil.md @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ tags: status: todo aliases: [Nuclear Recoil, R_N, Weak Magnetism] cssclasses: [] -related_components: [[02-phase-space]], [[nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors]] +related_components: [[02-phase-space]], [[corrections/05-radiative]] --- # Nuclear Recoil Effects — $R_N$, $Q$, and Induced Currents diff --git a/docs/corrections/07-detector-response.md b/docs/corrections/07-detector-response.md deleted file mode 100644 index f47b94f..0000000 --- a/docs/corrections/07-detector-response.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,181 +0,0 @@ -______________________________________________________________________ - -title: "08 – Detector Response Convolution" -date: 2026-05-01 -tags: - -- beta-spectrum/detector-response - status: active - aliases: [Convolution, Response Matrix, Smearing] - cssclasses: [] - related_components: \[[00-beta-spectrum-overview]\], \[[06-radiative-corrections]\] - -______________________________________________________________________ - -# Detector Response Convolution — $M(E_j) = \\sum_i \\Phi(W_i) \\cdot R(E_j; W_i) \\cdot \\Delta W_i$ - -## Overview - -Detector response convolution bridges the gap between theoretical beta spectra and experimentally measured data. A theoretical spectrum $\\Phi(W)$ assumes perfect energy resolution, while real detectors smear the true energy distribution due to finite resolution, charge collection inefficiencies, and electronic noise. - -The convolution operation: - -$$M_j = \\sum_i \\Phi(W_i) \\cdot R(E_j; W_i) \\cdot \\Delta W_i$$ - -where: - -- $\\Phi(W_i)$ — theoretical differential spectrum at true energy $W_i$ -- $R(E_j; W_i)$ — detector response probability: probability that an electron of true energy $W_i$ deposits energy $E_j$ in channel $j$ -- $\\Delta W_i$ — energy bin width at $W_i$ -- $M_j$ — predicted measured counts in detector channel $j$ - -## Two Modes of Operation - -### Tabulated Response - -Receive a pre-computed response matrix from Monte Carlo simulations (GEANT4, EGSNRC) or dedicated calibration measurements. The matrix has shape $(N\_{\\text{calib}}, N\_{\\text{channels}})$, where each row $i$ is the detector response to mono-energetic electrons at calibration energy $E_i$. - -```python -from beta_spectrum import DetectorResponse - -# Load from MC simulation output -detector = DetectorResponse.from_mc_simulation( - channel_energies=channel_grid, - response_matrix=mc_response, - calibration_energies=mc_energies, -) -``` - -### Analytical Model - -Parameterized model with Gaussian core + exponential tail, suitable for quick estimates when no tabulated response is available. - -```python -detector = DetectorResponse.from_gaussian_params( - channel_energy_range=(1.0, 1.6), # in m_e units - n_channels=4096, - sigma_a=0.0, # energy-independent resolution (m_e) - sigma_b=0.0, # sqrt(E) contribution (m_e^{-1/2}) - tail_fraction=0.0, # fraction of events in exponential tail - tau=0.01, # decay constant of tail (m_e) - model="gaussian", # "gaussian" | "gaussian_tail" | "tikhonov" - fano_factor=0.0, # Fano factor (0.12 for Si, ~0 for MMC) -) -``` - -## Analytical Response Models - -### Gaussian Core - -Pure Gaussian peak with energy-dependent resolution: - -$$G(E; E_0, \\sigma) = \\frac{1}{\\sigma\\sqrt{2\\pi}} \\exp\\left(-\\frac{(E - E_0)^2}{2\\sigma^2}\\right)$$ - -### Gaussian + Exponential Tail - -Models low-energy tailing from charge collection inefficiencies in semiconductor detectors (standard for Si-PIPS detectors): - -$$f(E) = (1 - f\_{\\text{tail}}) \\cdot G(E; E_0, \\sigma) + f\_{\\text{tail}} \\cdot T(E; E_0, \\sigma, \\tau)$$ - -where $T$ is the Tikhonov function: - -$$T(E) = \\frac{1}{2\\tau} \\exp\\left(\\frac{\\tau(E - E_0)}{2} + \\frac{\\sigma^2\\tau^2}{8}\\right) \\cdot \\text{erfc}\\left(\\frac{E - E_0}{\\sqrt{2}\\sigma} + \\frac{\\sigma\\tau}{\\sqrt{2}}\\right)$$ - -### Energy-Dependent Resolution - -$$\\sigma(E) = \\sqrt{\\sigma_a^2 + (\\sigma_b \\sqrt{E})^2 + F \\cdot E \\cdot w}$$ - -- $\\sigma_a$ — energy-independent contribution (electronic noise, etc.) -- $\\sigma_b$ — $\\sqrt{E}$ term (statistical fluctuations in charge creation) -- $F$ — Fano factor ($\\approx 0.12$ for Si, $\\approx 0$ for MMCs) -- $w$ — mean ionization energy ($\\approx 3.6$ eV for Si, converted to $m_e$ units) - -## Calculator Implementation - -> [!tip] Code mapping -> Module: `beta_spectrum/components/detector_response.py` → `DetectorResponse` class -> -> - **Analytical models**: Gaussian core, Gaussian + exponential tail (Tikhonov) -> - **Tabulated mode**: Linear interpolation from MC-calculated response matrix -> - **Convolution**: `DetectorResponse.convolve(W, spectrum, normalize=True)` -> - **Integration with BetaSpectrum**: `BetaSpectrum.convolve_with_detector(detector, W, config)` -> - **Integration with BetaSpectrumAnalyzer**: `BetaSpectrumAnalyzer.convolved_spectrum(detector, normalize)` - -### API Usage - -```python -from beta_spectrum import ( - BetaSpectrum, SpectrumConfig, DetectorResponse, - BetaSpectrumAnalyzer, T_to_W -) - -# 1. Create theoretical spectrum for 99Tc -config = SpectrumConfig( - Z_parent=43, Z_daughter=44, A_number=99, - endpoint_MeV=0.294 # 99Tc Q-value -) -spectrum = BetaSpectrum.from_config(config) -W, kinetic_MeV = spectrum.get_energy_grid(config) - -# 2. Define detector response (sigma = 1.0 keV in m_e units) -sigma_1keV_me = 1.0 / 511.0 # convert keV to m_e units -W0 = T_to_W(0.294) -detector = DetectorResponse.from_gaussian_params( - channel_energy_range=(1.0, W0 + 0.05), - n_channels=512, - sigma_a=sigma_1keV_me, - sigma_b=0.0, - tail_fraction=0.0, - model="gaussian", - fano_factor=0.0, -) - -# 3. Convolve -convolved = spectrum.convolve_with_detector(detector, W=W, config=config) - -# 4. Or use the Analyzer -analyzer = BetaSpectrumAnalyzer(spectrum, config) -convolved_normalized = analyzer.convolved_spectrum(detector, normalize=True) -``` - -## Convolution Algorithm - -The convolution proceeds in three steps: - -1. **Build response matrix**: For each energy bin $W_i$, compute the detector response $R(E_j; W_i)$ across all channels $j$. Result: matrix of shape $(N\_{\\text{bins}}, N\_{\\text{channels}})$. - -1. **Weight by spectrum**: Multiply each response row by the theoretical spectrum value $\\Phi(W_i)$ and bin width $\\Delta W_i$. - -1. **Sum over energies**: For each channel $j$, sum contributions from all energy bins: - $$M_j = \\sum_i \\Phi(W_i) \\cdot R(E_j; W_i) \\cdot \\Delta W_i = (R^T \\cdot (\\Phi \\cdot \\Delta W))\_j$$ - -The bin width is computed as the half-bin average: $\\Delta W_i = \\frac{1}{2}(\\Delta W\_{i-1/2} + \\Delta W\_{i+1/2})$. - -> [!note] Normalization -> Each response function $R(E; W_i)$ is normalized to unit area before convolution. This ensures that convolving a mono-energetic line produces a response with the same total counts. The final convolved spectrum preserves the integral of the theoretical spectrum. - -## Energy Units - -All detector response computations use **total energy in units of $m_e c^2$** (natural units, $m_e = 1$): - -- $m_e c^2 = 510.998950$ keV -- Conversion: $W = 1 + T / (m_e c^2)$ where $T$ is kinetic energy -- A resolution of $\\sigma = 1.0$ keV corresponds to $\\sigma = 1.0 / 511.0 \\approx 0.00196$ in $m_e$ units - -> [!warning] Unit consistency -> The detector channel energy range and the spectrum energy grid must be in the same units (total energy in $m_e$ units). Use `T_to_W()` from `beta_spectrum.utils` to convert kinetic energy in MeV to total energy in $m_e$ units. - -## Physical Interpretation - -The convolution operation smears the sharp theoretical spectrum into a realistic measured spectrum: - -- **Peak broadening**: Finite energy resolution widens spectral features -- **Endpoint smearing**: The sharp cutoff at $W_0$ becomes a gradual fall-off -- **Tail effects**: Charge collection inefficiencies create low-energy tails (modeled by `gaussian_tail`) -- **Count conservation**: Total number of events is preserved (integral of convolved spectrum = integral of theoretical spectrum) - -## References - -- Hayen et al., RevModPhys **90**, 015008 (2017) — Comprehensive review of beta-decay theory -- Tikhonov, Soviet Physics Doklady **8**, 591 (1964) — Original formulation of the response function -- Sigmund, Phys. Rev. **130**, 1497 (1963) — Low-energy tailing in semiconductor detectors diff --git a/docs/gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm.md b/docs/gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm.md deleted file mode 100644 index e7e0f89..0000000 --- a/docs/gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,172 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "SSM — Spectrum Shape Method for gA Extraction" -date: 2026-05-14 -tags: - - gA/extraction/algorithm - - gA/ssm - - beta-spectrum/forbidden -status: active -aliases: [Spectrum Shape Method, gA fitting, shape factor fit] -related_notes: - - gA-extraction/02-ssnme - - gA-extraction/03-tc99-case-study - - gA-extraction/04-implementation-todo - - nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors - - corrections/05-radiative ---- - -# Spectrum Shape Method (SSM) — Step-by-Step Algorithm for gA Extraction - -## 1. Physical Basis - -For **forbidden nonunique β decays**, the shape factor $C(w_e)$ decomposes into three energy-dependent components with distinct coupling-constant dependence: - -$$C(w_e) = g_V^2\, C_V(w_e) + g_A^2\, C_A(w_e) + g_V g_A\, C_{VA}(w_e) \tag{1}$$ - -where $w_e$ is the total electron energy in units of $m_e c^2$. The components $C_V$, $C_A$, $C_{VA}$ are computed from nuclear many-body theory and are **independent of the coupling constants**. The spectrum shape is sensitive to $g_A$ through the interference between vector, axial-vector, and mixed terms — a purely nuclear-structure effect unique to nonunique forbidden decays. - -> [!note] Why nonunique decays? -> Unique forbidden decays have a single dominant NME → universal spectrum shape independent of nuclear structure. Nonunique decays involve multiple NMEs → the relative weight of vector vs. axial contributions depends on $g_A$, creating observable spectral shape differences. - -## 2. The Full Spectrum Model - -The differential spectrum (Paulsen et al., 2024, Eq. 5): - -$$N(W) = \mathcal{N} \cdot F(Z,W) \cdot p W (W_0 - W)^2 \cdot X(W) \cdot S(Z,W) \cdot R(W) \cdot C(W; g_A, g_V) \cdot \rho(Z,W)$$ - -where: -- $\mathcal{N}$ — overall normalization (absorbs $G_F^2 \cos^2\theta_C / 2\pi^3$) -- $F(Z,W)$ — Fermi function (Coulomb correction) — [[corrections/01-fermi-function]] -- $p W (W_0 - W)^2$ — phase space — [[02-phase-space]] -- $X(W)$ — atomic exchange correction — [[corrections/04-exchange]] -- $S(Z,W)$ — atomic screening — [[corrections/03-screening]] -- $R(W)$ — outer radiative correction — [[corrections/05-radiative]] -- $C(W; g_A, g_V)$ — **shape factor** — [[nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors]] -- $\rho(Z,W)$ — atomic overlap correction — [[corrections/08-atomic-overlap]] - -## 3. The Algorithm - -### Step 1: Compute shape factor components from nuclear model - -**Input:** Nuclear many-body model (NSM, MQPM, etc.) with appropriate valence space and Hamiltonian for the transition of interest. - -**Output:** Three energy-dependent lookup tables: $C_V(W)$, $C_A(W)$, $C_{VA}(W)$ for $W \in [1, W_0]$. - -**Method:** -1. Run shell model (or MQPM) to obtain one-body transition densities (OBTDs) -2. For each OBTD, compute the contribution to each shape factor component using the Behrens-Bühring formalism (truncated lepton current approximation) -3. Sum over all contributing multipole orders $K$ and lepton quantum numbers $k_e, k_\nu$ - -**CVC constraint for vector current:** -The relativistic vector current includes the small relativistic NME (sNME), which is related to the large vector NME (l-NME) via the CVC hypothesis: - -$$\text{sNME} = \frac{1}{2} \left[ W_0 - (m_n - m_p) + E_C \right] \cdot \text{l-NME}$$ - -where $E_C$ is the Coulomb displacement energy. The sNME is critical for small-$Q$ decays like $^{99}\text{Tc}$ ($[W_0 - (m_n - m_p)] = -0.487$ MeV). - -**Practical note:** For $^{99}\text{Tc}$, the dominant transition is $2d_{5/2} \to 1g_{9/2}$ with OBTD $\approx 0.478$. The sub-dominant $1g_{7/2} \to 1g_{9/2}$ transition contributes OBTD $\approx 0.010$. See Kostensalo & Suhonen (2017), Table VII. - -### Step 2: Build theoretical spectrum for trial $g_A$ - -For each trial value of $g_A$ (with $g_V = 1.0$ fixed by CVC): - -1. **Compute shape factor:** - $$C(W; g_A) = C_V(W) + g_A^2\, C_A(W) + g_A\, C_{VA}(W)$$ - (using $g_V = 1.0$) - -2. **Compute full spectrum:** - $$N_{\text{theo}}(W; g_A) = \mathcal{N} \cdot F(Z,W) \cdot p W (W_0 - W)^2 \cdot X(W) \cdot S(Z,W) \cdot R(W) \cdot C(W; g_A) \cdot \rho(Z,W)$$ - -3. **Normalize:** Choose $\mathcal{N}$ so that $\int_1^{W_0} N_{\text{theo}}(W; g_A)\, dW = 1$ (or match the total counts in the experimental spectrum) - -### Step 3: Compare with experimental spectrum - -**Input:** Experimental spectrum data $(W_i, N_i, \sigma_i)$ for $i = 1, \dots, N_{\text{bins}}$. - -**χ² function:** -$$\chi^2(g_A) = \sum_{i \in \text{fit range}} \frac{\left[N_i - N_{\text{theo}}(W_i; g_A)\right]^2}{\sigma_i^2}$$ - -**Fit range selection (Paulsen et al., 2024):** -- **Lower bound:** ~20 keV — below this, detector threshold effects and atomic exchange modeling dominate -- **Upper bound:** ~275 keV for $^{99}\text{Tc}$ — above this, endpoint region with poor statistics and resolution distortion -- Rationale: the $g_A$-driven shape differences are most pronounced in the mid-energy range - -### Step 4: Minimize χ² and extract $g_A$ - -**Grid search:** Evaluate $\chi^2(g_A)$ on a grid (e.g., $g_A \in [0.4, 1.8]$ with step 0.01). - -**Refinement:** Use `scipy.optimize.minimize_scalar` (Brent's method) around the grid minimum. - -**Uncertainty:** Find $g_A$ values where $\chi^2 = \chi^2_{\text{min}} + 1$. These define the 68% confidence interval. - -**Output:** $(g_A^{\text{best}}, g_A^{\text{low}}, g_A^{\text{high}})$ - -### Step 5 (optional): Simultaneous $g_A$ and $g_V$ fit - -If $g_V$ is not fixed to 1.0 (e.g., testing CVC violation): - -$$\chi^2(g_A, g_V) = \sum_i \frac{\left[N_i - N_{\text{theo}}(W_i; g_A, g_V)\right]^2}{\sigma_i^2}$$ - -Fit both parameters simultaneously. The correlation between $g_A$ and $g_V$ is typically strong. - -### Step 6 (optional): Half-life normalization — quenched $g_A$ - -The $g_A$ extracted from **shape alone** can be enhanced ($>1.27$) because the normalization constant $\mathcal{N}$ absorbs the overall rate. To obtain the **quenched** values consistent with half-life: - -1. Compute the theoretical partial half-life for the best-fit $(g_A, g_V)$: - $$t_{1/2}^{\text{theo}} = \frac{\kappa}{\tilde{C}}, \quad \tilde{C} = \int_1^{W_0} C(W; g_A, g_V) \cdot p W (W_0 - W)^2 \cdot F(Z,W) \cdot X(W) \cdot S(Z,W) \cdot R(W) \, dW$$ - -2. Compare with experimental partial half-life: - $$t_{1/2}^{\text{exp}} = \frac{t_{1/2}^{\text{total}}}{\text{branching ratio}}$$ - -3. Extract quenched values: - $$g_i^{\text{quenched}} = g_i^{\text{shape}} \times \sqrt{\frac{t_{1/2}^{\text{theo}}}{t_{1/2}^{\text{exp}}}}$$ - -For $^{99}\text{Tc}$: $t_{1/2}^{\text{theo}} \approx 30 \times 10^3$ a vs. $t_{1/2}^{\text{exp}} \approx 212 \times 10^3$ a → quenching factor $\approx 0.38$. - -## 4. The sNME Problem and ESSM - -### The Problem - -The sNME (small relativistic vector NME) is extremely difficult to compute in nuclear shell model because it involves contributions outside the valence shell. The CVC prediction gives a "canonical" value, but this assumes a perfect many-body theory — which finite valence spaces are not. - -### The Solution: Enhanced SSM (ESSM) - -Kumar et al. (2021) proposed treating the sNME as a **fitting parameter** alongside $g_A$. This is the **Enhanced Spectrum Shape Method (ESSM)**: - -1. Fix $g_A$ at a trial value -2. Vary the sNME to simultaneously fit the **experimental half-life** (not just the shape) -3. Because the half-life depends quadratically on sNME, there are typically **two solutions** for each $g_A$ value: - - **sNME(c):** closer to the CVC value - - **sNME(f):** further from the CVC value -4. Compare both solutions' spectral shapes with the data - -The "optimal" choice (closest to CVC) is theoretically motivated, but experimental validation is needed. See [[gA-extraction/02-ssnme]] for details. - -## 5. Uncertainty Budget - -| Component | Uncertainty on $g_A$ | Relative | Dominant for | -|---|---|---|---| -| Fit method (statistics) | 0.0745 | 4.9% | All SSM analyses | -| Coulomb displacement energy | 0.0425 | 2.8% | Small-$Q$ decays | -| Nuclear model | 0.0294 | 1.9% | Model comparison | -| Lepton current treatment | 0.0127 | 0.8% | High-$Z$ nuclei | -| Fit range | 0.0061 | 0.4% | All | -| Endpoint energy | 0.0038 | 0.2% | Precision $Q$-value needed | -| Radiative corrections | 0.0033 | 0.2% | All | -| Atomic exchange | 0.0029 | 0.2% | Low-energy region | -| **Combined** | **0.0919** | **6.0%** | — | - -Source: Paulsen et al. (2024), Table VIII. - -## 6. Key References - -| Ref | Citation | Use | -|---|---|---| -| [SSM-orig] | Kostensalo, Haaranen, Suhonen, *Phys. Rev. C* **95**, 044313 (2017) | SSM introduction; 26 decays | -| [SSM-Tc94-98] | Kostensalo, Suhonen, *Phys. Rev. C* **96**, 024317 (2017) | gA-driven evolution; $^{94,98}$Tc, $^{99}$Tc | -| [Paulsen2024] | Paulsen et al., *Phys. Rev. C* **110**, 055503 (2024) | $^{99}$Tc MMC measurement; $g_A$ extraction (enhanced value) | -| [Song2025] | Song et al., arXiv:2506.17544 (2025) | $^{99}$Tc MMC measurement; quenched $g_A$ via ESSM | -| [ESSM] | Kumar, Srivastava, Suhonen, *Eur. Phys. J. A* **57**, 225 (2021) | Enhanced SSM formalism | -| [Ramalho2024] | Ramalho, Suhonen, *Front. Phys.* **12**, 1455778 (2024) | sNME analysis; five second-forbidden decays | -| [Hayen2017] | Hayen et al., *Rev. Mod. Phys.* **90**, 015008 (2017) | BB formalism; shape factor theory | diff --git a/docs/gA-extraction/02-ssnme.md b/docs/gA-extraction/02-ssnme.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4ffae91..0000000 --- a/docs/gA-extraction/02-ssnme.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,106 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "sNME — Small Relativistic Vector NME" -date: 2026-05-14 -tags: - - gA/extraction/ssnme - - beta-spectrum/forbidden - - nuclear-structure/NME -status: active -aliases: [small relativistic vector nuclear matrix element, sNME, CVC vector current] -related_notes: - - gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm - - gA-extraction/03-tc99-case-study - - nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors ---- - -# The Small Relativistic Vector NME (sNME) — Why It Matters - -## What is the sNME? - -In forbidden β decay, the relativistic vector current has two components: -- **Large NME (l-NME):** Computed from the large components of nucleon wave functions. Reliably calculable in NSM. -- **Small NME (sNME):** Couples the large and small components. **Extremely difficult** to compute because it involves contributions outside the valence shell. - -In a perfect many-body theory with infinite valence space, the sNME is related to the l-NME by the **CVC hypothesis**: - -$$\text{sNME} = \frac{1}{2} \left[ W_0 - (m_n - m_p) + E_C \right] \cdot \text{l-NME} \tag{1}$$ - -where: -- $W_0$ — endpoint energy in MeV -- $m_n - m_p \approx 1.293$ MeV — neutron-proton mass difference -- $E_C$ — Coulomb displacement energy (depends on nuclear charge distribution) -- l-NME — large vector NME (computable in NSM) - -### Why is sNME important? - -Despite being "small" (typically $< 0.1$ in absolute units), the sNME can influence β-spectral shapes and half-lives **quite strongly** because: - -1. **Quadratic dependence:** The half-life $t_{1/2} \propto 1/(\text{l-NME} + \text{sNME})^2$, so even a small sNME shifts the total matrix element significantly. -2. **Small Q-value amplification:** For $^{99}\text{Tc}$, $[W_0 - (m_n - m_p)] = -0.487$ MeV — the negative mass difference nearly cancels the endpoint energy, making the sNME contribution relatively large. -3. **Shape dependence:** Different sNME values produce measurably different spectral shapes, especially below 100 keV. - -## The CVC Value — An Idealization - -The CVC prediction (Eq. 1) is an **idealization** — it pertains to a perfect many-body theory. In practice: -- NSM calculations with finite valence spaces give sNME $\approx 0$ (the valence space truncation kills it) -- The CVC value serves as a **reference**, not a physical prediction - -## ESSM: sNME as a Fitting Parameter - -### The Enhanced Spectrum Shape Method (ESSM) - -Kumar et al. (2021) proposed using the sNME as an additional fitting parameter: - -1. **Fix** $g_A$ at a trial value -2. **Vary** the sNME to match the **experimental partial half-life** -3. Because $t_{1/2} \propto (\text{l-NME} + \text{sNME})^{-2}$, the equation $t_{1/2}^{\text{theo}}(g_A, \text{sNME}) = t_{1/2}^{\text{exp}}$ typically yields **two solutions** for the sNME: - - **sNME(c):** closer to the CVC value - - **sNME(f):** further from the CVC value - -### Two-Solution Structure - -For each $g_A$ value, there are two sNME solutions (or none, if the experimental half-life cannot be reproduced). This creates two distinct spectral shape predictions: - -- The **sNME(c)** solution is theoretically preferred (closer to CVC) -- The **sNME(f)** solution may also be physical — only experiment can decide - -### Application to $^{99}\text{Tc}$ - -Song et al. (2025) applied ESSM to $^{99}\text{Tc}$ with three nuclear models: - -| Model | $g_A^{\text{eff}}$ | sNME (c) [fm³] | sNME (f) [fm³] | $\chi^2_\nu$ | p-value | -|---|---|---|---|---|---| -| **CloseCVC (CVC fixed)** | 1.1 | 0.0674 | — | 1.106 | 0.12 | -| | 1.0 | 0.0681 | — | 1.244 | 0.004 | -| | 1.0 | 0.0651 | — | 1.644 | <0.0001 | -| **FarCVC (sNME fitted)** | 1.2 | −0.0698 | — | 1.066 | 0.22 | -| | 1.0 | −0.0669 | — | 1.097 | 0.14 | -| | 1.0 | −0.0683 | — | 1.095 | 0.14 | - -Key findings: -- **Paulsen et al. (CloseCVC):** $g_A^{\text{eff}} = 1.526(92)$ — enhanced value -- **Song et al. (FarCVC/ESSM):** $g_A^{\text{eff}} \approx 1.0$–1.2 — quenched value -- The discrepancy arises from the **sNME treatment**, not from the data - -## sNME in Other Transitions - -Ramalho & Suhonen (2024) studied five second-forbidden nonunique decays: - -| Transition | $g_A$ Sensitivity | sNME Sensitivity | -|---|---|---| -| $^{60}\text{Fe} \to {}^{60}\text{Co}$ | Strong | Weak | -| $^{94}\text{Nb} \to {}^{94}\text{Mo}$ | Strong (jj45pnb) | Weak | -| $^{98}\text{Tc} \to {}^{98}\text{Ru}$ | Strong | Moderate (below 100 keV) | -| $^{126}\text{Sn} \to {}^{126}\text{Sb}$ | Weak | **Strong** | -| $^{129}\text{I} \to {}^{129}\text{Xe}$ | Weak | **Strong** | - -For $^{99}\text{Tc}$, the $g_A$ sensitivity is **strong** and the sNME sensitivity is **moderate** — making it an excellent candidate for combined $g_A$ + sNME fitting. - -## References - -| Ref | Citation | Use | -|---|---|---| -| [ESSM] | Kumar, Srivastava, Suhonen, *Eur. Phys. J. A* **57**, 225 (2021) | ESSM formalism | -| [Song2025] | Song et al., arXiv:2506.17544 (2025) | $^{99}$Tc with ESSM | -| [Ramalho2024] | Ramalho, Suhonen, *Front. Phys.* **12**, 1455778 (2024) | sNME in five second-forbidden decays | -| [Behrens] | Behrens & Bühring, *Electron Radial Wave Functions and Nuclear Beta Decay* (1982) | sNME formalism | diff --git a/docs/gA-extraction/03-tc99-case-study.md b/docs/gA-extraction/03-tc99-case-study.md deleted file mode 100644 index 93aa059..0000000 --- a/docs/gA-extraction/03-tc99-case-study.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,105 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "$^{99}$Tc Case Study — gA Extraction Results" -date: 2026-05-14 -tags: - - gA/extraction/tc99 - - beta-spectrum/forbidden/second -status: active -aliases: [Tc99 gA, 99Tc beta spectrum, SSM Tc99] -related_notes: - - gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm - - gA-extraction/02-ssnme - - refs/2024_Paulsen_T99_beta_spectrum/summary - - refs/2025_Song_tc99_measurement_for_g_v/summary ---- - -# $^{99}$Tc — The Premier Laboratory for gA Extraction - -## Decay Properties - -| Property | Value | -|---|---| -| Transition | $^{99}\text{Tc}(9/2_1^+) \to {}^{99}\text{Ru}(5/2_1^+)$ | -| Forbiddenness | Second-forbidden nonunique | -| Branching ratio | 99.99855(30)% | -| Q-value | 295.82(16) keV (Paulsen et al.) | -| Half-life | 211.5(1.1) $\times 10^3$ a (ENSDF) | -| Dominant transition | $2d_{5/2} \to 1g_{9/2}$ (OBTD $\approx 0.478$) | -| Sub-dominant | $1g_{7/2} \to 1g_{9/2}$ (OBTD $\approx 0.010$) | - -## Two Contradictory Results - -### Result 1: Paulsen et al. (2024) — Enhanced $g_A$ - -**Measurement:** MMC at PTB Berlin + LNHB Paris. Two independent setups, consistent results. - -**Method:** Fixed sNME to CVC value (CloseCVC). - -**Result:** -$$g_A^{\text{eff}} = 1.526(92)$$ - -This is an **enhanced** value — significantly above the free-nucleon value of 1.27. - -**Follow-on values:** -- $g_V^{\text{eff}} = 0.376(5)$ — quenched (via half-life normalization) -- $g_A^{\text{eff, quenched}} = 0.574(36)$ — quenched -- $\bar{E}_\beta = 98.51(23)$ keV -- $\log ft = 12.3478(23)$ - -**Key claim:** This resolves an inconsistency — first-forbidden nonunique transitions show $g_A^{\text{eff}} \approx 0.9$, while fourth-forbidden show $g_A^{\text{eff}} \approx 0.9$. The $^{99}\text{Tc}$ result suggests $g_A$ is **enhanced** in second-forbidden decays. - -### Result 2: Song et al. (2025) — Quenched $g_A$ - -**Measurement:** MMC at LLNL (KRISS sensor). Independent of Paulsen et al. - -**Method:** ESSM — sNME fitted as free parameter (FarCVC). - -**Result:** -$$g_A^{\text{eff}} \approx 1.0\text{--}1.2$$ - -This is a **quenched** value, consistent with first-forbidden and fourth-forbidden nonunique decays. - -**Best fit:** glekpn Hamiltonian, $g_A^{\text{eff}} = 1.2$, sNME = −0.0698 fm³, $\chi^2_\nu = 1.066$, p-value = 0.22 - -**Key claim:** The Paulsen result is an artifact of fixing sNME to CVC. When sNME is fitted, the data prefer quenched $g_A$, consistent with the broader pattern. - -## The Crucial Difference: sNME Treatment - -| Aspect | Paulsen et al. | Song et al. | -|---|---|---| -| sNME treatment | Fixed to CVC value | Fitted as free parameter (ESSM) | -| $g_A^{\text{eff}}$ | 1.526(92) (enhanced) | 1.0–1.2 (quenched) | -| Nuclear models | NSM (GLEKPN) only | NSM (glekpn, jj45pnb) + MQPM | -| Half-life constraint | Separate normalization | Simultaneous shape + half-life fit | -| Consistency with 113Cd, 115In | Inconsistent | Consistent | - -## What This Means for Your Experiment - -The $^{99}\text{Tc}$ case demonstrates that **the treatment of sNME is the dominant theoretical systematic** in gA extraction. The two experiments (Paulsen and Song) measured essentially the same spectrum (Paulsen's data was used as input for Song's analysis) but obtained **contradictory results** because of different theoretical assumptions. - -**For your data analysis:** -1. **Do not fix sNME to CVC** — treat it as a fitting parameter -2. **Use ESSM** — simultaneous fit to spectral shape + half-life -3. **Try multiple nuclear models** — glekpn, jj45pnb, and MQPM (if available) -4. **Report both sNME solutions** (c and f) for each model -5. **The "optimal" choice** (closest to CVC) is theoretically motivated but requires experimental validation - -## Your Polynomial Fit: Connecting to SSM - -You've fitted $C(W) = A \cdot W + B \cdot W^{-1} + C \cdot W^2$. This empirical parametrization can be **cross-checked** against the SSM prediction: - -1. Compute $C_{\text{SSM}}(W; g_A)$ for a range of $g_A$ values -2. Fit each SSM curve to the polynomial form $aW + bW^{-1} + cW^2$ over your fit range -3. Extract the effective $(A, B, C)$ as a function of $g_A$ -4. Compare your fitted $(A, B, C)$ to the $g_A$-dependent curve to identify which $g_A$ range is consistent - -This provides a **model-independent bridge** between your empirical fit and the physical $g_A$ extraction. - -## References - -| Ref | Citation | -|---|---| -| [Paulsen2024] | Paulsen et al., *Phys. Rev. C* **110**, 055503 (2024) | -| [Song2025] | Song et al., arXiv:2506.17544 (2025) | -| [Kostensalo2017] | Kostensalo & Suhonen, *Phys. Rev. C* **96**, 024317 (2017) | -| [ESSM] | Kumar et al., *Eur. Phys. J. A* **57**, 225 (2021) | diff --git a/docs/gA-extraction/04-implementation-todo.md b/docs/gA-extraction/04-implementation-todo.md deleted file mode 100644 index 95b0af6..0000000 --- a/docs/gA-extraction/04-implementation-todo.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,175 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Implementation TODO — gA Extraction Pipeline" -date: 2026-05-14 -tags: - - gA/extraction/todo - - implementation-plan -status: active -aliases: [gA pipeline, SSM implementation, shape factor module] -related_notes: - - gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm - - gA-extraction/02-ssnme - - gA-extraction/03-tc99-case-study ---- - -# Implementation TODO — gA Extraction Pipeline - -> [!info] Status -> **Research phase.** Experimental data to be added by user. Implementation to follow after documentation is complete. - -## Phase 1: Nuclear Model Input (P0 — prerequisite) - -- [ ] **1.1** Obtain precomputed shape factor components $C_V(W)$, $C_A(W)$, $C_{VA}(W)$ for $^{99}\text{Tc}$ - - [ ] Option A: Use Kostensalo & Suhonen (2017) MQPM results (published in PRC 96, 024317) - - [ ] Option B: Use Ramalho & Suhonen (2024) NSM results (Front. Phys. 12, 1455778) - - [ ] Option C: Run shell model with KShell or another available code - - [ ] **Decision:** Which source to use? (See [[gA-extraction/03-tc99-case-study]] for comparison) -- [ ] **1.2** Store components as lookup tables (CSV or NumPy): - - `data/Tc95_CV.csv` — $C_V(W)$ vs. $W$ - - `data/Tc95_CA.csv` — $C_A(W)$ vs. $W$ - - `data/Tc95_CVA.csv` — $C_{VA}(W)$ vs. $W$ - - Columns: `W (unitless)`, `C_V`, `C_A`, `C_VA` - - $W$ range: $[1.001, 1.580]$ (corresponds to $T \in [0.5, 295]$ keV) -- [ ] **1.3** Decide on sNME handling: - - [ ] Fix to CVC value (Paulsen et al. approach) - - [ ] Fit as free parameter (ESSM — Song et al. approach) **RECOMMENDED** - - If ESSM: also need l-NME from nuclear model - -## Phase 2: Shape Factor Module (P1 — depends on 1.1) - -Create `beta_spectrum/components/shape_factor_gA.py`: - -- [ ] **2.1** `ShapeFactorGA` class: - ```python - class ShapeFactorGA: - def __init__(self, C_V_table, C_A_table, C_VA_table, sNME=None): - # Load tables, interpolate to arbitrary W - # sNME: if None, use CVC value; if float, use fitted value - - def evaluate(self, W, gA, gV=1.0): - """Compute C(W; gA, gV) = gV²·CV(W) + gA²·CA(W) + gV·gA·CVA(W)""" - - def evaluate_components(self, W): - """Return (C_V(W), C_A(W), C_VA(W))""" - ``` -- [ ] **2.2** Interpolation: Use `scipy.interpolate.interp1d` with `kind='cubic'` for smooth evaluation -- [ ] **2.3** Validation: Check that $C(W)$ is monotonically reasonable for $g_A \in [0.4, 1.8]$ -- [ ] **2.4** Unit test: `test_shape_factor_gA_consistency` — verify decomposition matches Eq. (1) - -## Phase 3: Fitting Pipeline (P2 — depends on 1.2 + 2.1) - -Create `beta_spectrum/gA_fit.py`: - -- [ ] **3.1** `fit_gA_spectrum(W_exp, N_exp, sigma_exp, shape_factor, W_min, W_max)`: - ```python - def fit_gA_spectrum(W_exp, N_exp, sigma_exp, sf, W_min=0.020, W_max=0.275): - """ - Fit gA to experimental spectrum using χ² minimization. - - Parameters - ---------- - W_exp : array_like - Electron total energy (unitless, W = 1 + T/m_ec²) - N_exp : array_like - Measured counts (or normalized spectrum) - sigma_exp : array_like - Uncertainties on N_exp - sf : ShapeFactorGA - Precomputed shape factor - W_min, W_max : float - Fit range in unitless W - - Returns - ------- - gA_best, gA_low, gA_high, chi2_min, chi2_curve - """ - ``` -- [ ] **3.2** Grid search: $g_A \in [0.4, 1.8]$ with 0.01 step -- [ ] **3.3** Brent's method refinement around grid minimum -- [ ] **3.4** Confidence interval: find $g_A$ where $\chi^2 = \chi^2_{\text{min}} + 1$ -- [ ] **3.5** χ² curve output for visualization -- [ ] **3.6** Unit test: `test_fit_gA_reproduces_input` — inject known $g_A$, verify recovery - -## Phase 4: ESSM Extension (P2 — optional but recommended) - -- [ ] **4.1** `fit_gA_sNME(W_exp, N_exp, sigma_exp, sf, l_NME, t_half_exp)`: - - Simultaneous fit of $g_A$ and sNME - - Match both spectral shape AND experimental half-life - - Return both (sNME_c, sNME_f) solutions -- [ ] **4.2** Half-life computation: - ```python - def compute_half_life(sf, gA, gV, sNME, W0): - """Compute t_1/2 from integrated shape factor""" - C_integral = integrate(C(W; gA, gV, sNME) * phase_space * Fermi * ... dW) - return kappa / C_integral - ``` -- [ ] **4.3** Validation against Song et al. (2025) results for $^{99}\text{Tc}$ - -## Phase 5: Validation (P3 — depends on 3.1 + 4.1) - -- [ ] **5.1** Reproduce Paulsen et al. (2024) result: $g_A^{\text{eff}} = 1.526(92)$ with CVC-fixed sNME -- [ ] **5.2** Reproduce Song et al. (2025) result: $g_A^{\text{eff}} \approx 1.0\text{--}1.2$ with ESSM -- [ ] **5.3** Cross-check: polynomial fit $A \cdot W + B \cdot W^{-1} + C \cdot W^2$ vs. SSM for same $g_A$ -- [ ] **5.4** Sensitivity analysis: vary $W_{\text{min}}$, $W_{\text{max}}$, nuclear model, sNME - -## Phase 6: Experimental Data Analysis (P4 — depends on user providing data) - -- [ ] **6.1** Import raw spectrum data (format TBD) -- [ ] **6.2** Apply detector response correction (if needed) — [[corrections/07-detector-response]] -- [ ] **6.3** Run `fit_gA_spectrum` with appropriate fit range -- [ ] **6.4** Run `fit_gA_sNME` (ESSM) if nuclear model input available -- [ ] **6.5** Generate publication-quality plots: - - Measured spectrum + best-fit theoretical curve - - Residuals plot - - χ² vs. $g_A$ curve - - Comparison with polynomial fit -- [ ] **6.6** Uncertainty budget: propagate detector, model, and systematic uncertainties - -## Phase 7: Paper Draft Support - -- [ ] **7.1** Generate tables: fitted $g_A$, sNME, $\chi^2$, confidence intervals -- [ ] **7.2** Generate figures for paper -- [ ] **7.3** Cross-reference with literature values -- [ ] **7.4** Draft methodology section using [[gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm]] as reference - -## File Structure (target) - -``` -beta_shape_pnpi/ -├── beta_spectrum/ -│ ├── components/ -│ │ └── shape_factor_gA.py ← Phase 2 -│ └── gA_fit.py ← Phase 3 + 4 -├── data/ -│ ├── Tc95_CV.csv ← Phase 1 -│ ├── Tc95_CA.csv -│ ├── Tc95_CVA.csv -│ └── experimental/ ← Phase 6 (user-provided) -├── tests/ -│ └── test_shape_factor_gA.py ← Phase 2 + 3 -│ └── test_gA_fit.py -└── docs/ - └── gA-extraction/ - ├── 01-ssm-algorithm.md - ├── 02-ssnme.md - ├── 03-tc99-case-study.md - └── 04-implementation-todo.md -``` - -## Decision Points - -1. **Nuclear model source:** Which precomputed $C_i(W)$ to use? (MQPM vs. NSM) -2. **sNME strategy:** CVC-fixed or ESSM? (ESSM recommended) -3. **Fit range:** What $W_{\text{min}}$, $W_{\text{max}}$ for your detector? -4. **Detector corrections:** Do you need response deconvolution before fitting? - -## References for Implementation - -| Item | Source | -|---|---| -| Shape factor formalism | Kostensalo & Suhonen, PRC 96, 024317 (2017) | -| ESSM formalism | Kumar et al., EPJA 57, 225 (2021) | -| sNME analysis | Ramalho & Suhonen, Front. Phys. 12, 1455778 (2024) | -| $^{99}\text{Tc}$ MMC data | Paulsen et al., PRC 110, 055503 (2024) | -| $^{99}\text{Tc}$ ESSM analysis | Song et al., arXiv:2506.17544 (2025) | -| BB formalism | Behrens & Bühring (1982) | diff --git a/docs/nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors.md b/docs/nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1f114b9..0000000 --- a/docs/nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,127 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "10 – Nuclear Structure Effects" -date: 2026-04-26 -tags: - - beta-spectrum/nuclear-structure -status: active -aliases: [Shape Factor, C(Z,W), Form Factors] -cssclasses: [] -related_components: [[corrections/06-recoil]], ---- - -# Nuclear Structure Effects — The Shape Factor $C(Z,W)$ - -## Overview - -Nuclear structure effects are encapsulated in the shape factor $C(Z,W)$ which multiplies the phase space × Fermi function. This is distinct from electrostatic finite size corrections ([[corrections/02-finite-size]]) — it describes how nuclear form factors and matrix elements modify the spectrum beyond simple point-nucleus Coulomb interaction. - -$$N(W)\,dW \propto p W (W_0 - W)^2 F(Z,W) C(Z,W) \tag{79}$$ - -## Two Formalisms Compared - -| Approach | Style | Strengths | -|---|---|---| -| **Behrens-Bühring** (BB) | Couples leptonic + nuclear parts; rigorous expansion in $r^2$, $(m_eR)^a$, $(WR)^b$, $(\alpha Z)^c$ with tabulated functions $I(k_e,m,n,\rho)$ | Most precise, established computational machinery | -| **Holstein** (HS) | Decouples leptonic + nuclear parts; manifestly covariant form factors | Clean symmetry properties, intuitive classification | - -Hayen et al. adopt BB's computational approach but present results in Holstein notation for clarity. See Appendix E of Hayen paper for detailed comparison. - -## Multipole Expansion (Eq. 78) - -Form factors $F_{KLs}(q^2)$ describe nuclear structure model-independently: - -$$\langle f | V_\mu - A_\mu | i \rangle \propto \sum_{KMs} \sum_{L=K-1}^{K+1} (-1)^{J_f-M_f+M} (-i)^L F_{KLs}(q^2) $$ -$$\times \sqrt{4\pi(2J_i+1)} \begin{pmatrix} J_f & K & J_i \\ -M_f & M & M_i \end{pmatrix} \frac{(qR)^L}{(2L+1)!!}$$ - -Since $(qR)^2$ is very small for beta decay, expansion typically stops after first order. - -## Impulse Approximation (Eq. 80–81) - -Nucleons treated as non-interacting particles coupling to weak vertex as free particles: - -$$O_{KLs} = \sum_{\alpha,\beta} \langle \alpha | O_{KLs} | \beta \rangle a^\dagger_\alpha a_\beta \tag{80}$$ -$$\langle f | O_{KLs} | i \rangle = \sum_{\alpha,\beta} \langle \alpha | O_{KLs} | \beta \rangle \langle f | a^\dagger_\alpha a_\beta | i \rangle \tag{81}$$ - -The one-body density matrix elements $\langle f | a^\dagger_\alpha a_\beta | i \rangle$ are calculable via shell model methods. - -> [!warning] Limitations -> The impulse approximation neglects many-body effects: -> - **Meson exchange**: long history (Blin-Stoyle, Chemtob & Rho) -> - **Core polarization**: nuclear medium modifications -> -> For allowed decays, results largely hold due to cancellations between core-polarization and meson exchange (Morita 1985), but individual effects can reach ~40%. - -## Induced Currents — Form Factor Classification - -See [[corrections/06-recoil]] for detailed equations. Key points: - -### First-Class Currents (CVC/PCAC) -- **Vector** $g_V$: conserved, from EM data via CVC -- **Weak magnetism** $(g_M - g_V)/2M$: determined by CVC from M1 transitions -- **Axial-vector** $g_A$: measured in neutron decay -- **Induced pseudoscalar** $g_P/2M$: PCAC predicts ~−229, quenched ~80% in nuclei - -### Second-Class Currents (G-parity forbidden) -- **Induced scalar** $g_S/2M$: excluded by CVC for Fermi transitions -- **Induced tensor** $g_{II}/2M$: experimental null results; reduces to first-class component only - -## Nuclear Matrix Element Operators (Table V of Hayen) - -| Operator | Symbol | Type | $\Delta J$ | -|---|---|---|---| -| $M_F$ | Fermi matrix element | Vector | 0 | -| $M_{GT}$ | Gamow-Teller matrix element | Axial-vector | 0,1 (not 0→0) | -| $M_L$ | Longitudinal vector | — | depends on K | -| $M_{T}, M_{TL}$ | Transverse multipoles | — | depends on K | - -## Validity of Impulse Approximation - -- **Vector current**: conserved via CVC → impulse approximation reliable -- **Axial current**: broken by PCAC → quenching effects significant (up to 80% for $g_P$) -- Mesonic degrees of freedom absorbed into nuclear potential (Wilkinson 1974) - -## Nuclear Deformation Correction $D_C(Z,W,\beta^2)$ - -The nuclear structure analogue of the electrostatic deformation correction ([[corrections/02-finite-size]]): -- Accounts for non-spherical nuclear shape in convolution terms -- Partially cancels with $DFS$ correction (electrostatic) -- Relevant for deformed nuclei ($\beta_2 \neq 0$) - -## Calculator Status - -> [!info] Implementation Planned -> The shape factor $C(Z,W; g_A)$ is being implemented as `ShapeFactorGA` component. See `.rpiv/artifacts/research/2026-05-27_gA-spectrum-shape-factor-implementation.md` for the implementation plan. - -## Latest Research (May 2026) - -### Key Findings from Paulsen et al. (2024) Fig. 9 - -The spectral shape of ⁹⁹Tc β decay is **highly sensitive to g_A** in the low-energy region (0–100 keV): - -- **Small g_A (0.5–1.0)**: Bell-shaped spectrum with low-energy enhancement -- **Large g_A (1.4–2.0)**: Flattened spectrum with low-energy suppression -- **Crossover point**: All spectra intersect around 100 keV - -### g_A Values — Resolved - -| Source | g_A^eff | Method | Status | -|---|---|---|---| -| Paulsen et al. (2024) | 1.526(92) | CVC-fixed sNME | Enhanced (controversial) | -| Song et al. (2025) | 1.0–1.2 | ESSM (farCVC) | Quenched (recommended) | - -**Resolution**: The discrepancy is resolved by proper sNME treatment. ESSM (sNME as fit parameter) gives quenched g_A = 1.0–1.2, consistent with other forbidden decays. - -### Table Data Status - -The energy-dependent tables for C_V(W), C_A(W), C_VA(W) are **not publicly available**. Priority actions: -1. Obtain from supplementary materials of Kostensalo & Suhonen (2017) or Ramalho & Suhonen (2024) -2. Contact Suhonen group (jouni.t.suhonen@jyu.fi) for table data -3. Use integrated values as proxy for initial implementation - -### References - -- [[Shape Factor C(W, g_A)]] — wiki concept page -- [[SSM — Spectrum Shape Method]] — wiki concept page -- [[ESSM — Enhanced Spectrum Shape Method]] — wiki concept page -- [[Paulsen et al. (2024)]] — wiki entity page -- [[Song et al. (2025)]] — wiki entity page diff --git a/docs/nuclear-structure/index.md b/docs/nuclear-structure/index.md deleted file mode 100644 index 006b5fc..0000000 --- a/docs/nuclear-structure/index.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Nuclear Structure — Overview" -date: 2026-05-14 -tags: - - beta-spectrum/nuclear-structure -status: active -aliases: [Nuclear Theory, Shape Factor, NME] ---- - -# Nuclear Structure Effects in β Decay - -## Overview - -Nuclear structure enters the β spectrum through the **shape factor** $C(Z,W)$, which encodes how the nuclear wave functions and transition matrix elements modify the spectrum beyond the point-nucleus Coulomb interaction. - -## Contents - -- [[nuclear-structure/01-shape-factors]] — Shape factor $C(Z,W)$: decomposition, multipole expansion, impulse approximation, induced currents - -## Key Concepts - -- **Shape factor decomposition:** $C(W) = g_V^2 C_V(W) + g_A^2 C_A(W) + g_V g_A C_{VA}(W)$ -- **Forbidden decays:** Nonunique transitions are sensitive to $g_A$ → basis for SSM -- **sNME:** Small relativistic vector NME — critical for precision but hard to compute - -## Related - -- [[gA-extraction/01-ssm-algorithm]] — How to extract $g_A$ from shape factor -- [[corrections/06-recoil]] — Weak magnetism, induced currents, recoil effects diff --git a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/1967_Sirlin_general_properties_of_em_corrections.md b/docs/refs/electromagnetic/1967_Sirlin_general_properties_of_em_corrections.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9e998f5..0000000 --- a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/1967_Sirlin_general_properties_of_em_corrections.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,301 +0,0 @@ -# General Properties of the Electromagnetic Corrections to the Beta Decay of a Physical Nucleon - -A. Sirlin - -*Physical Review*, Volume 164, Number 5, 25 December 1967 - -Department of Physics, New York University, New York, New York -(Received 26 June 1967) - ---- - -## Abstract - -Some general properties of the electromagnetic corrections to the \(\beta\) decay of a physical nucleon (a nucleon in the presence of strong interactions) are discussed. The aim is to isolate and determine general properties independent of the details of strong interactions and assumptions about the existence of the intermediate boson. The method separates out in a finite and gauge-invariant manner all terms of order \(1/k\) in the hadronic covariants, then examines properties of other contributions. Under general and plausible mathematical assumptions, all terms of order \(\alpha\) in the correction factor to the electron spectrum that explicitly depend on the electron energy \(E\) and electron mass \(m\) can be rigorously computed, despite strong interaction complications, provided contributions of relative order \(\alpha q/M\), \(\alpha(E/M)\ln(M/E)\), and \(\alpha \nu_N/c\) are neglected. The electromagnetic correction of order \(\alpha\) to the shape of the allowed electron spectrum is given by a single universal function \(g(E, E_m, m)\), independent of strong interaction details, intermediate boson assumptions, and the ratio \(M_{GT}/M_F\). This function is physically significant, particularly for nuclear \(\beta\) decays with \(E_m/m \gg 1\). Model-dependent terms that contribute to the lifetime are discussed but not evaluated. Other observables for which corrections can be evaluated model-independently are illustrated by the virtual radiative corrections to the longitudinal polarization of the electron in allowed transitions. The paper implicitly assumes the validity of the vector and axial-vector theory of weak interactions. - ---- - -## I. INTRODUCTION - -The radiative corrections to \(\beta\) decay of a nucleon have been discussed extensively.\(^{1-7}\) They are of interest for their relevance to universality of weak interactions and because they alter the shape of the allowed electron spectrum in \(\beta\) decay, with significant effects when the end-point energy is large compared to the electron mass.\(^{8}\) - -A key theoretical aspect is that these corrections are logarithmically divergent in the \(V-A\) theory when evaluated for a bare nucleon, while the corresponding quantities for muon decay are finite and well defined. Two main approaches to save universality have been suggested: - -1. Weak interactions are mediated by an intermediate boson.\(^{9-11}\) -2. Strong interactions themselves may provide a natural ultraviolet cutoff.\(^{12-14}\) - -More recently, Bjorken\(^{15}\) and Abers, Norton, and Dicus,\(^{16}\) using current-algebra techniques, have asserted that part of the electromagnetic corrections to the vector decay coupling constant contains a divergent part independent of strong interactions. However, this does not give a complete answer because: (a) there may be contributions from the axial current that are also divergent and model-dependent, and (b) possible intrinsic structure effects of weak interactions from intermediate boson calculations may alter convergence properties.\(^{11}\) - -This paper bypasses the convergence problem, taking the hopeful view that the weak, electromagnetic, and strong interactions conspire to give a finite value for the relative renormalization of \(\beta\) and \(\mu\) decay coupling constants. The aim is to isolate and determine general properties of the corrections independent of strong interaction details and intermediate boson assumptions. - ---- - -## II. THE SEPARATION - -The virtual radiative corrections of order \(\alpha\) are separated into two parts. Part one is: (i) independent of strong interaction details; (ii) contains all terms of order \(1/k\) in hadronic covariants; (iii) finite (in the uv region) and gauge-invariant. Part two depends on strong interaction details and involves three- and four-point functions. - -### A. Photon Exchange Between Hadronic and Electron Lines - -Diagrams where a photon is exchanged between hadronic and electron lines are divided into three classes: photon emitted from an electromagnetic vertex attached to the external proton line, external neutron line, or from internal structure of the weak vertex. The contribution of the first class [Fig. 1(a)] is:\(^{18}\) - -\[M^{(p)} = -\frac{G_{\nu}^{0}\alpha}{\sqrt{2}4\pi^{2}i}\int d^{4}k D_{\mu \nu}(k)[\bar{u}_{e}(2l_{r} - \gamma_{r}k)O_{\lambda}\nu], \quad (1)\] - -where \(p_1\), \(p_2\), \(l\), and \(k\) are the neutron, proton, electron, and photon four-momenta; \(\lambda_{\min}\) is the photon mass; \(O_{\lambda} \equiv \gamma_{\lambda}(1 + \gamma_{5})\); \(G_{\nu}^{0}\) is the bare coupling constant of the weak-vector current; \(W_{\lambda}\) and \(\bar{\Gamma}_{\mu}^{(p)}\) are the fully dressed renormalized proper vertices; and \(i\bar{S}_{p}^{\prime}\) is the fully dressed renormalized propagator of the proton. The photon propagator is chosen in the Landau gauge: - -\[D_{\mu \nu}(k) = \frac{(g_{\mu\nu} - k_{\mu}k_{\nu} / k^2 + i\epsilon)}{k^2 - \lambda_{\min}k^2 + i\epsilon}. \quad (2)\] - -The "proton electromagnetic form factor" \(F_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_2, p_2 + k)\) is introduced for the case where \(p_2\) corresponds to an on-shell proton but \(p_2 + k\) is off-shell: - -\[\begin{array}{rl} & {\bar{u}_p\bar{\Gamma}_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_2,p_2 + k)\bar{S}_p^{\prime}(p_2 + k)}\\ & {\qquad = \bar{u}_pF_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_2,p_2 + k)[\bar{p}_2 + k - m_p]^{-1},} \end{array} \quad (3)\] - -where \(m_p\) is the proton mass. Using the generalized Ward identity: - -\[k_{\mu}F_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{2} + k) = k, \quad (4a)\] -\[F_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{2}) = \gamma_{\mu}. \quad (4b)\] - -Equations (4) suggest writing:\(^{19}\) - -\[F_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{2} + k) = \gamma_{\mu} + X_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{2} + k), \quad (5a)\] - -where - -\[k_{\mu}X_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{2} + k) = 0, \quad (5b)\] -\[X_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{2}) = 0. \quad (5c)\] - -The terms of order \(1/k\) in the hadronic covariant are separated: - -\[\begin{array}{rl} & {H_{\mu \lambda}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{1},k)\equiv \bar{u}_p\bar{\Gamma}_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{2} + k)\bar{S}_p^{\prime}(p_{2} + k)}\\ & {\qquad \times W_{\lambda}(p_{2} + k,p_{1})u_n = (k^2 +2p_{2}\cdot k + i\epsilon)^{-1}}\\ & {\times \bar{u}_p[2(p_{2} + k_\mu)W_\lambda (p_{2},p_{1}) + R_{\mu \lambda}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{1},k)]u_n,} \end{array} \quad (6a)\] - -where - -\[R_{\mu \lambda}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{1},k) = (2p_{2\mu} + k_{\mu})[W_{\lambda}(p_{2} + k,p_{1}) - W_{\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1})] + X_{\mu}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{2} + k)(p_{2} + k + m_{p})W_{\lambda}(p_{2} + k,p_{1}) + [\gamma_{\mu},k]W_{\lambda}(p_{2} + k,p_{1}) / 2. \quad (6b)\] - -Assuming \(\partial W_{\lambda} / \partial k_{\mu}(p_{2} + k,p_{1})|_{k_{\mu} = 0}\) exists, \(R_{\mu \lambda}^{(p)}\to 0\) linearly with \(k_{\mu}\) as \(k_{\mu}\to 0\). - -A similar analysis applies to diagrams with photon exchange between the electron and the electromagnetic vertex attached to the external neutron line [Fig. 1(b)]. Because the neutron has zero charge: - -\[k_{\mu}F_{\mu}^{(n)}(p_{1} - k,p_{1}) = 0, \quad (7a)\] -\[F_{\mu}^{(n)}(p_{1} - k,p_{1}) = 0. \quad (7b)\] - -The matrix element for this contribution has the hadronic covariant: - -\[H_{\mu \lambda}^{(n)}(p_{2},p_{1},k) = [k^{2} - 2p_{1}\cdot k + i\epsilon ]^{-1} [\bar{u}_{\mu}W_{\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1} - k)(p_{1} - k + m_{n}) F_{\mu}^{(n)}(p_{1} - k,p_{1})u_{n}]. \quad (7c)\] - -\(H_{\mu \lambda}^{(n)}\) is "regular" as \(k_{\mu}\to 0\). - -Let \(G_{\mu \lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k)\) be the matrix element for photon emission from any internal line of the proper vertex of the weak-interaction current [Fig. 1(c)]. Using the generalized Ward identity for electromagnetic vertex functions:\(^{20}\) - -\[k_{\mu}G_{\mu \lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k) = W_{\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1}) - W_{\lambda}(p_{2} + k,p_{1}). \quad (8a)\] - -### B. Combined Matrix Element \(M_1\) - -The matrix element \(M_1\) (in the Landau gauge) of all diagrams with photon exchange between hadronic and electron lines [Figs. 1(a)-(c)] is: - -\[M_{1} = -\frac{G_{\nu}^{0}}{\sqrt{2}}\frac{\alpha}{4\pi^{2}i}\int \frac{d^{4}k D_{n\mu}(k)[\bar{u}_{e}(2l_{r} - \gamma_{r}k)O_{\lambda}\nu_{\tau}]}{(k^{2} - 2l\cdot k + i\epsilon)} \times \left[\bar{u}_{p}\left[\frac{(2p_{2\mu} + k_{\mu})W_{\lambda}(p_{2\mu}p_{1})}{(k^{2} + 2p_{2}\cdot k + i\epsilon)} +T_{\mu \lambda}(p_{2\mu}p_{1}k)\right]u_{n}\right], \quad (9a)\] - -where - -\[T_{\mu \lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k) = \frac{R_{\mu\lambda}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{1},k)}{k^{2} + 2p_{2}\cdot k + i\epsilon} +G_{\mu \lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k) +\frac{R_{\mu\lambda}^{(n)}(p_{2},p_{1},k)}{k^{2} - 2p_{1}\cdot k + i\epsilon}, \quad (9b)\] -\[R_{\mu \lambda}^{(n)}(p_{2},p_{1},k) = W_{\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1} - k)(p_{1} - k + m_{n}) F_{\mu \lambda}^{(n)}(p_{1} - k,p_{1}). \quad (9c)\] - -The tensor-pseudotensor \(T_{\mu \lambda}\) has two basic properties: (a) it is "regular" as \(k\rightarrow 0\); (b) it is transversal: - -\[k_{\mu}T_{\mu \lambda} = 0. \quad (10)\] - -Equation (10) follows from Eqs. (4a), (7a), (8a) and definitions (9b) and (9c). - -Thus, Eq. (9a) achieves a separation of Figs. 1(a)-(c) into two parts: the first part is finite (in the Landau gauge), contains all terms of order \(1/k\) in the hadronic covariant, and can be evaluated independently of strong interaction details; the second part depends on strong interaction details through \(T_{\mu \lambda}\) and is regular as \(k_{\mu}\rightarrow 0\). - -### C. Gauge Invariance and Additional Diagrams - -To obtain gauge-invariant matrix elements, one must add diagrams where the photon is emitted and absorbed by the electron line (electron wave function renormalization, Fig. 2) and by the hadronic line (Fig. 3). - -In the Landau gauge, after mass renormalization, the electron wave function renormalization to order \(\alpha\) is: - -\[\begin{array}{l}{M_{2} = -\frac{\alpha}{8\pi^{2}i}\frac{G_{\nu}^{0}}{\sqrt{2}} [\bar{u}_{p}W_{\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1})u_{n}]}\\ {\times \int \frac{d^{4}k D_{n\mu}(k)[\bar{u}_{e}(2l_{r} - \gamma_{r}k)I(2l_{r} - k\gamma_{r})(l + m)O_{\lambda}v_{\tau}]}{(k^{2} - 2l\cdot k + i\epsilon)^{2}2m^{2}}.} \end{array} \quad (11)\] - -The integral in Eq. (11) is finite in the uv region and \(M_2\) is proportional to the zeroth-order matrix element: - -\[M_{0} = \frac{G_{\nu}^{0}}{\sqrt{2}} [\bar{u}_{e}O_{\lambda}v_{\tau}][\bar{u}_{p}W_{\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1})u_{n}]. \quad (12)\] - -The matrix element for diagrams where a photon is emitted and absorbed by the hadronic line (Fig. 3) must have the structure: - -\[M_{3} = \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} [\bar{u}_{e}O_{\lambda}v_{\tau}][V_{\lambda} + A_{\lambda}], \quad (13a)\] - -where - -\[V_{\lambda} = \bar{u}_{p}[f_{1}(q^{2})\gamma_{\lambda} + if_{2}(q^{2})\sigma_{\lambda \nu}q_{\nu} + f_{3}(q^{2})q_{\lambda}]u_{n}, \quad (13b)\] - -and \(q\) is the total momentum transfer to the leptons. Neglecting terms proportional to \(\alpha q\) and the \(q^{2}\) dependence of form factors, only \(f_{1}(0)\gamma_{\lambda}\) and \(g_{1}(0)\gamma_{\lambda}\gamma_{5}\) survive. - -All infrared terms from Fig. 3 arise from graphs where the photon is emitted and absorbed by the outgoing proton and are contained in the convection-convection contribution: - -\[M_{3}^{(c)} = -\frac{\alpha}{8\pi^{2}i} M_{0}\int \frac{d^{4}k D_{\mu \lambda}(k)(2p_{2} - k)_{\mu}(2p_{2} - k)_{\nu}}{(k^{2} - 2p_{2}\cdot k + i\epsilon)^{2}}. \quad (14)\] - -The contributions of Eqs. (11), (14), and the first term in Eq. (9a) are each finite in the uv region, and their sum is invariant under gauge transformations of the photon propagator. - -### D. Extension to Intermediate Boson Case - -The separation and all equations extend immediately to the case of an intermediate boson by: replacing \(W_{\lambda}\) everywhere by \(W_{\mu}D_{\mu \lambda}^{a}\) (where \(D_{\mu \lambda}^{a}\) is the boson propagator), and redefining \(G_{\mu \lambda}\) to include photon emission by the intermediate boson. Graphs with photon exchange between the boson and electron are included in the \(T_{\mu \lambda}\) contribution in Eq. (9a); all other graphs with photon attached to the intermediate boson are included in Eq. (13a). - ---- - -## III. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MODEL-DEPENDENT CONTRIBUTIONS - -The term involving \(T_{\mu \lambda}\) in Eq. (9a) is discussed. Aside from constant factors, it is given by: - -\[I = -\frac{\alpha}{2\pi}\int \frac{d^{4}k[\bar{u}_{e}(2l_{\mu} - \gamma_{\mu}k)O_{\lambda}v_{\nu}][\bar{u}_{p}T_{\mu\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k)u_{n}]}{(k^{2} + i\epsilon)(k^{2} - 2l\cdot k + i\epsilon)}, \quad (15)\] - -where the transversality relation of Eq. (10) has been used and \(\lambda_{\min} = 0\) because the integral is infrared-convergent. - -Consider the contribution \(K\) involving the factor \(\gamma_{\mu}k\) in the leptonic covariant: - -\[K = -\frac{\alpha}{2\pi} [\bar{u}_{e}\gamma_{\mu}\gamma_{\rho}O_{\lambda}v_{\nu}]\int \frac{d^{4}k k_{\rho}[\bar{u}_{p}T_{\mu\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k)u_{n}]}{(k^{2} + i\epsilon)(k^{2} - 2l\cdot k + i\epsilon)}. \quad (16)\] - -Using the separation: - -\[[k^{2} - 2l\cdot k + i\epsilon]^{-1} = [k^{2} + i\epsilon]^{-1} + 2l\cdot k[k^{2} + i\epsilon]^{-1}[k^{2} - 2l\cdot k + i\epsilon]^{-1}, \quad (17a)\] - -\(K\) can be written as: - -\[K = K_{1} + K_{2}, \quad (17b)\] -\[K_{1} = -\frac{\alpha}{2\pi} [\bar{u}_{e}\gamma_{\mu}\gamma_{\rho}O_{\lambda}v_{\nu}]\int \frac{d^{4}k k_{\rho}[\bar{u}_{p}T_{\mu\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k)u_{n}]}{(k^{2} + i\epsilon)^{2}}, \quad (17c)\] -\[K_{2} = -\frac{\alpha}{\pi} [\bar{u}_{e}\gamma_{\mu}\gamma_{\rho}O_{\lambda}v_{\nu}]\int \frac{d^{4}k k_{\rho}k_{\sigma}[\bar{u}_{p}T_{\mu\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k)u_{n}]}{(k^{2} + i\epsilon)^{2}(k^{2} - 2l\cdot k + i\epsilon)}. \quad (17d)\] - -Because \(T_{\mu \lambda}\) is "regular" as \(k_{\mu}\rightarrow 0\), \(K_1\) and \(K_2\) converge in the infrared region. - -The integral in Eq. (17c) does not involve the electron four-momentum \(l_{\mu}\) explicitly. If the total momentum transfer \(q\) is neglected in \(T_{\mu \lambda}\) so that \(T_{\mu \lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k) \approx T_{\mu \lambda}(p_{1},p_{1},k)\), after performing the \(k\) integration \(K_1\) is of the form (see Appendix A): - -\[K_{1} = (\alpha /2\pi)[\bar{u}_{e}O_{\lambda}v_{\nu}][\bar{u}_{p}(a\gamma_{\lambda} + b\gamma_{\lambda}\gamma_{5})u_{n}], \quad (17e)\] - -where \(a\) and \(b\) are constants independent of \(l_{\mu}\), whose precise values depend on \(T_{\mu \lambda}\) and therefore on strong interaction details and intermediate boson assumptions. - -For the contribution \(K_2\), considering the \(R_{\mu \lambda}^{(p)}\) term in \(T_{\mu \lambda}\), one expands: - -\[R_{\mu \lambda}^{(p)}(p_{2},p_{1},k) = k_{\alpha}S_{\alpha \mu \lambda}^{(a)}(p_{2},p_{1}) + k_{\alpha}k_{\beta}S_{\alpha \beta \mu \lambda}^{(b)}(p_{2},p_{1},k), \quad (18a)\] - -where \(S_{\alpha \mu \lambda}^{(a)}(p_{2},p_{1})\) is independent of \(k\) and \(S_{\alpha \beta \mu \lambda}^{(b)}(p_{2},p_{1},k)\) is regular as \(k\rightarrow 0\). The contribution from \(R_{\mu \lambda}^{(p)}\) is: - -\[K_{2}^{(p)} = (\alpha /\pi)l_{\sigma}[\bar{u}_{e}\gamma_{\mu}\gamma_{\rho}O_{\lambda}v_{\nu}] \int \frac{d^{4}k k_{\sigma}k_{\rho}[\bar{u}_{p}(k_{\alpha}S_{\alpha \mu \lambda}^{(a)}(p_{2},p_{1}) + k_{\alpha}k_{\beta}S_{\alpha \beta \mu \lambda}^{(b)}(p_{2},p_{1},k))u_{n}]}{[k^{2} + i\epsilon][k^{2} - 2l\cdot k + i\epsilon][k^{2} + 2p_{2}\cdot k + i\epsilon]}. \quad (18b)\] - -The integral involving \(S_{\alpha \mu \lambda}^{(a)}\) contains terms of logarithmic order in \(E\) and \(m\). As it is multiplied by \(l_{\sigma}\), the first term in Eq. (18b) gives contributions of order \(\alpha(E/m_{p})\ln(m_{p}/E)\), \(\alpha(E/m_{p})\), and smaller—"terms of higher order in the lepton four-momentum." - -For the term involving \(S_{\alpha \beta \mu \lambda}^{(b)}\), defining: - -\[L^{(b)}(\xi) = \int \frac{d^{4}k k_{\sigma}k_{\rho}k_{\alpha}k_{\beta}S_{\alpha \beta \mu \lambda}^{(b)}(p_{2},p_{1},k)}{[k^{2} + i\epsilon][k^{2} - 2\xi l\cdot k + i\epsilon][k^{2} + 2p_{2}\cdot k + i\epsilon]}, \quad (18c)\] - -where \(\xi\) is a numerical variable. For \(\xi = 0\), \(L^{(b)}(0)\) is well defined (convergent in the infrared, same uv convergence as \(L^{(b)}(1)\)). Assuming \(L^{(b)}(\xi)\) is continuous in \(-1 \leq \xi \leq 1\) or at least remains bounded, the second term in Eq. (18b) is also of higher order in \(l\), of order \(\alpha E/M\) where \(M\) may be \(m_p\), the intermediate boson mass, or hadron masses characterizing \(S^{(b)}\). - -**Conclusion**: The contributions of \(T_{\mu \lambda}\) in Eq. (9a) are of the form (17e), provided terms of order \(\alpha(E/M)\ln(M/E)\) and \(\alpha q/M\) are neglected. - ---- - -## IV. GENERAL RESULTS - -All "model-dependent terms" can be written as: - -\[\begin{array}{r}S = \frac{G_{\nu}^{0}}{\sqrt{2}}\frac{\alpha}{2\pi} [\bar{u}_{e}O_{\lambda}v_{\nu}][\bar{u}_{p}(c\gamma_{\lambda} + \rho d\gamma_{\lambda}\gamma_{5})u_{n}],\\ \rho = -G_{A}^{0}/G_{\nu}^{0}, \end{array} \quad (19a)\] - -where \(c\) and \(d\) are constants independent of \(E\) and \(m\). Equation (19) contributes to the lifetime corrections. However, neglecting terms of order \(\alpha^{2}\), these terms can be formally "absorbed" in the zeroth-order matrix elements by redefining the vector and axial-vector coupling constants. Therefore, up to terms of order \(\alpha\), Eq. (19) will not alter any observable which to zero order in \(\alpha\) is independent of \(G_{\nu}^{0}\) and \(G_{A}^{0}\). For an unpolarized initial neutron, two such observables are: (i) the electron spectrum when neutrino direction and lepton polarizations are undetected; (ii) the longitudinal polarization of the electron when neutrino direction and polarization are undetected. - -### A. Universal Correction Function \(g(E, E_m, m)\) - -Combining the first term of Eq. (9a) with Eqs. (11), (14), and (19), and the inner bremsstrahlung diagrams, the decay probability for a neutron (after averaging over initial nucleon polarization, integrating over neutrino direction, and summing over lepton polarizations) is: - -\[Pd\rho = \frac{\tilde{\xi}[E_m - E]^{2}p^{2}}{2\pi^{3}} d\rho\left[1 + \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} g(E,E_m,m)\right], \quad (20a)\] - -where: - -\[\begin{array}{rl} g(E,E_m,m) = & 3\ln \left(\frac{m_p}{m}\right) - \frac{3}{4} + \frac{4}{6}\left[\frac{\tanh^{-1}\beta}{\beta} -1\right] \\ & \times \left[\frac{(E_m - E)}{3E} -\frac{3}{2} +\ln \left[\frac{2(E_m - E)}{m}\right]\right] \\ & + \frac{4}{\beta} L\left(\frac{2\beta}{1 + \beta}\right) \\ & +\frac{1}{\beta}\tanh^{-1}\beta \left[2(1 + \beta^{2}) + \frac{(E_m - E)^{2}}{6E^{2}} -4\tanh^{-1}\beta \right], \end{array} \quad (20b)\] - -and: - -\[\begin{array}{r}\tilde{\xi} = |G_{V}^{0}|^{2}\left(1 + \frac{\alpha}{\pi}\mathrm{Re}\,c\right)|M_F|^{2} \\ +|G_{A}^{0}|^{2}\left(1 + \frac{\alpha}{\pi}\mathrm{Re}\,d\right)|M_{GT}|^{2}. \end{array} \quad (20c)\] - -In these equations, \(E_m\) is the end-point energy, \(p\) is the electron momentum, \(\beta = p/E\), \(M_F\) and \(M_{GT}\) are the Fermi and Gamow-Teller matrix elements, and \(L(x)\) is the Spence function: - -\[L(x) = \int_{0}^{x}\frac{dt}{t}\ln(1 - t). \quad (20d)\] - -For free neutron decay, \(|M_F|^{2} = 1\), \(|M_{GT}|^{2} = 3\). - -The model-dependent constants \(c\) and \(d\) are absorbed in \(\tilde{\xi}\). Equations (20) show that these terms contribute to the lifetime but do not alter the shape of the electron spectrum (up to terms of order \(\alpha\)). The Coulomb term of order \(\alpha\) is not included in Eq. (20a), as it is already incorporated in the Fermi function \(F(Z,E)\).\(^{3}\) Terms of relative order \(\alpha(E/M)\ln(M/E)\), \(\alpha q/M\), and smaller have been neglected. - -Equations (20) can be applied to allowed nuclear \(\beta\) decay using an independent particle model of the nucleus.\(^{7}\) The function \(g(E, E_m, m)\) is: - -- Independent of strong interaction details and intermediate boson assumptions -- Independent of \(M_{GT}/M_F\) -- The same for electron and positron decay - -Thus, \(g(E, E_m, m)\) is a **universal function** describing deviations from the allowed electron spectrum arising from radiative corrections of order \(\alpha\). It differs from previous calculations by a numerical constant independent of \(E\), \(E_m\), and \(m\).\(^{28}\) The corrections to the spectral shape are significant, particularly in allowed nuclear \(\beta\) decays with \(E_m \gg m\).\(^{3}\) - -For given \(G_{V}^{0}\) and \(G_{A}^{0}\), the function \(g\) increases the decay probability for neutron \(\beta\) decay by \(1.5\%\) and that of \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) by \(1.3\%\). This is not a complete lifetime calculation because model-dependent contributions of Eq. (20c) are not considered. However, the effect of \(g\) on the lifetime is rather large as it gives rise to the term \(3(\alpha/2\pi)\ln(m_p/E_m)\), discussed in detail in Ref. 4. - -### B. Longitudinal Polarization - -Aside from the electron spectrum, there are other observables for which radiative corrections can be computed model-independently, provided terms of order \(\alpha q/M\) and \(\alpha(E/M)\ln(M/E)\) are neglected.\(^{24}\) For the longitudinal polarization of the electron (initial nucleus unpolarized, neutrino direction undetected), the virtual radiative corrections give:\(^{25,26}\) - -\[P = -\beta \left[1 + \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} \frac{(1 - \beta^{2})}{\beta}\ln \left(\frac{1 + \beta}{1 - \beta}\right)\right]. \quad (21)\] - -This result is valid for an arbitrary value of \(M_{GT}/M_F\). The absence of model-dependent terms \(c\) and \(d\) indicates that Eq. (21) is independent of strong interaction details and intermediate boson assumptions. - ---- - -## APPENDIX A - -In Eq. (17c), writing \(O_{\lambda} \equiv \gamma_{\lambda}(1 + \gamma_{5})\) and using the identity: - -\[\gamma_{\mu}\gamma_{\rho}\gamma_{\lambda} = g_{\mu \rho}\gamma_{\lambda} - g_{\mu \lambda}\gamma_{\rho} + g_{\rho \lambda}\gamma_{\mu} - i\epsilon_{\mu \rho \lambda \alpha}\gamma_{\alpha}\gamma_{5}, \quad (A1)\] - -with convention \(\epsilon_{0123} = 1\), the contribution of the first term to \(K_1\) is: - -\[\frac{\alpha}{2\pi} [\bar{u}_{e}\gamma_{\lambda}(1 + \gamma_{5})v_{\nu}] \int \frac{d^{4}k[\bar{u}_{p}k_{\mu}T_{\mu\lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k)u_{n}]}{(k^{2} + i\epsilon)^{2}}. \quad (A2)\] - -Neglecting the momentum transfer to the leptons \(q = p_1 - p_2\) so that \(T_{\mu \lambda}(p_{2},p_{1},k) \approx T_{\mu \lambda}(p_{1},p_{1},k)\), and noting that after integration only the four-vectors \(p_{2\lambda}\), \(\gamma_{\lambda}\), and \(\gamma_{\lambda}\gamma_{5}\) are available, (A2) reduces to an expression of the form (17e), provided terms of order \(q\) are neglected. Identical conclusions hold for the other contributions of (A1). - ---- - -## APPENDIX B - -Continuity properties of Feynman integrals with reference to Eq. (18c) are discussed. As an illustration, consider the special form: - -\[S_{\alpha \beta \mu \lambda}^{(b)} \to g_{\alpha \beta} t_{\mu \lambda} \Lambda^{2} / (\Lambda^{2} - k^{2}), \quad (B1)\] - -where \(t_{\mu \lambda}\) is independent of \(k\) and \(\Lambda \gg E\). The integral \(L^{(b)}(\xi)\) is then proportional to: - -\[\begin{array}{rl} \mathcal{J}_{3\sigma \tau}(\xi) = & 8i(2\pi)^{-2} \\ & \times \int \frac{d^{4}k k_{\sigma}k_{\tau}[\Lambda^{2} / (\Lambda^{2} - k^{2})]}{[k^{2} + i\epsilon][k^{2} - 2\xi l\cdot k + i\epsilon][k^{2} + 2p_{2}\cdot k + i\epsilon]}. \end{array} \quad (B2)\] - -This integral is a continuous function of \(\xi\) in \(-1 \leq \xi \leq 1\). If \(\Lambda \gg m_p\) and terms of order \(m_p/\Lambda\) are neglected: - -\[\lim_{\xi \to 0}J_{3\sigma \tau}(\xi) = J_{3\sigma \tau}(0) = \frac{p_{2\sigma}p_{2\tau}}{m_{p}^{2}} - g_{\sigma \tau}\left[\frac{3}{4} + \ln\left(\frac{\Lambda}{m_{p}}\right)\right]. \quad (B3)\] - -This agrees with the general discussion after Eq. (18c). - -However, \(J_{3\sigma \tau}\) is **not** a continuous function of the four variables \(l_{\mu}\) in the neighborhood of \(l_{\mu} = 0\). The cone \(l^{2} = 0\) ("the light cone of the massless electron") is a surface of logarithmic singularities—these are the mass singularities discussed in Ref. 3 and elsewhere.\(^{27,28}\) In the proton rest frame, one contribution to (B2) can be written approximately as \(-[(l_{\sigma}l_{\tau})/(2m_{p}p)]\ln[(E+p)/(E-p)]\). Replacing \(l_{\sigma} \to \xi l_{\sigma}\), \(p \to \xi p\), \(E \to \xi E\), this is continuous in \(\xi\) and tends to 0 as \(\xi = 0\), but is not continuous in \(E\) and \(p\) as \(E = p\) is a line of logarithmic singularities. By examining continuity with respect to \(\xi\), one avoids the light cone of the massless electron. For the general argument of Sec. III, it is not actually necessary to assume continuity or boundedness—the minimal required property is that such contributions should not diverge faster than \(\ln \xi\) as \(\xi \to 0\). - ---- - -## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - -The author is greatly indebted to Professor W. Zimmermann and Dr. J. Abate and Dr. R. Rabitz for many helpful and stimulating discussions. He also wishes to thank Professor G. Kallen and Professor R. E. Norton and Mrs. H. R. Quinn for very interesting communications. - ---- - -## References - -1. R. E. Behrends, R. J. Finkelstein, and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. 101, 866 (1956). -2. S. M. Berman, Phys. Rev. 112, 267 (1958). -3. T. Kinoshita and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. 113, 1652 (1959). -4. S. M. Berman and A. Sirlin, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 20, 20 (1962). -5. L. Durand III, L. F. Landovitz, and R. B. Marr, Phys. Rev. 130, 1188 (1963). -6. G. Källén, Nucl. Phys. B1, 225 (1967). -7. For nuclear \(\beta\) decay, the independent-particle model calculations of the electromagnetic corrections of order \(Z\alpha^{2}\) have been discussed by W. Jaus and G. Rasche, Nucl. Phys. A143, 202 (1970) and W. Jaus, Phys. Letters 40B, 616 (1972). -8. See, for example, the discussion in Sec. 4 of Ref. 3. -9. T. D. Lee, Phys. Rev. 128, 899 (1962). -10. M. Veltman, Physica 29, 186 (1963). -11. R. A. Shaffer, Phys. Rev. 131, 2203 (1963); 135, B187 (1964). -12. R. P. Feynman, unpublished. -13. S. M. Berman and A. Sirlin, Ref. 4. -14. G. Källén, Ref. 6. -15. J. D. Bjorken, Phys. Rev. 148, 1467 (1966). -16. E. S. Abers, R. E. Norton, and D. A. Dicus, Phys. Rev. Letters 18, 676 (1967). -17. D. R. Yennie, S. C. Frautschi, and H. Suura, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 13, 379 (1961); N. Meister and D. R. Yenn diff --git a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/1986_Sirlin_verification_of_CVC.md b/docs/refs/electromagnetic/1986_Sirlin_verification_of_CVC.md deleted file mode 100644 index 762c624..0000000 --- a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/1986_Sirlin_verification_of_CVC.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,209 +0,0 @@ -# Accurate Verification of the Conserved-Vector-Current and Standard-Model Predictions - -A. Sirlin and R. Zucchini - -*Physical Review Letters*, 20 October 1986 - -Department of Physics, New York University, New York, New York 10003 -(Received 11 June 1986) - -PACS numbers: 23.40.Bw, 12.15.Ji, 13.40.Ks - ---- - -## Abstract - -An approximate analytic calculation of \(O(Z\alpha^{2})\) corrections to Fermi decays is presented. When the analysis of Koslowsky et al. is modified to take into account the new results, it is found that each of the eight accurately studied \(\mathcal{F}t\) values differs from the average by \(\leq 1\sigma\), thus significantly improving the comparison of experiments with conserved-vector-current predictions. The new \(\mathcal{F}t\) values are lower than before, which also brings experiments into very good agreement with the three-generation standard model, at the level of its quantum corrections. - ---- - -## 1. Introduction and Motivation - -The analysis of superallowed Fermi transitions has long been a cornerstone in the study of weak interactions and plays a basic role in verification of the standard model (SM) at the level of its quantum corrections.\(^{1,2}\) In recent years, experiments have attained great precision (\(\approx 0.1\%\)), and at this level a sharp discrepancy has been found between the four low-\(Z\) and the four high-\(Z\) decays.\(^{3,4}\) - -Motivated by this experimental situation and compelling theoretical arguments, the authors have reexamined the \(O(Z\alpha^{2})\) corrections to Fermi decays. These are defined as the residual \(O(Z\alpha^{2})\) corrections not contained in the product \(F(Z,E)(1 + \delta_{1})\), where \(F(Z,E)\) is the Fermi function and \(\delta_{1}\) the \(O(\alpha)\) correction. - -The problem of evaluating \(O(Z\alpha^{2})\) and \(O(Z^{2}\alpha^{3})\) corrections was tackled in the influential papers of Jaus and Rasche\(^{5}\) (called I) and Jaus\(^{6}\) (called II). These authors developed a systematic perturbative method in the framework of the independent-particle model. However, the results obtained in these pioneering papers face severe difficulties when confronted with theoretical expectations based on general theorems of perturbative quantum field theory. - ---- - -## 2. General Theoretical Considerations - -### 2.1 Diagram Classification - -The crucial diagrams are depicted in two figures: - -- **Figure 1**: Leading corrections of \(O(Z\alpha^{2})\). Here \(q\) stands for the momentum of the Coulombic photon interacting with the daughter nucleus, while \(k\) represents the momentum of the usual four-dimensional photon. In diagram (a), one subtracts from the diagram on the left the same diagram with \(q\) set equal to zero in the indicated propagator. -- **Figure 2**: Nonleading corrections of \(O(Z\alpha^{2})\). - -The combination of graphs in Fig. 1 is finite in both the ultraviolet and infrared domains. The same is true of the diagrams of Fig. 2 after charge renormalization [which affects Fig. 2(a)] and mass renormalization [which must be included in Fig. 2(b)]. Because all relevant mass scales are \(<< m_{W}\), these \(O(Z\alpha^{2})\) contributions may be treated in the local Fermi theory. - -### 2.2 Logarithmic Structure and Mass Singularities - -According to I, when the daughter nucleus is regarded as a point particle, the graphs in Fig. 1 lead to a large contribution to the decay rate, namely \(Z\alpha^{2}\ln(M/m)\), where \(M\) and \(m\) are the proton and positron masses, respectively. After the finite nuclear size is taken into account (II), \(M\) is essentially replaced by \(\Lambda \equiv \sqrt{6}/a\), where \(a\) is the rms radius of the charge distribution of the daughter nucleus. - -A key theoretical question is posed: Knowing the coefficient of \(\ln M\) in the corrections to the total decay rate, can one determine on the basis of general principles the coefficients of the other possible logarithms, \(\ln E_m\) and \(\ln m\), in the limit \(m/E_m \to 0\)? (Here \(E\) and \(E_m\) are the relativistic energy of the positron and its maximum value, respectively.) - -The answer is yes, by invoking the theorems on cancellation of mass singularities for total decay rates.\(^{7}\) If \(F(Z,E)\) is expanded in powers of the bare charge \(e_0\), there are no \(m\) singularities in the corrections to the total decay rate. Thus, the only \(m\) singularities are induced by renormalization. To obtain the coefficient of \(\ln m\), one expands: \(F(Z,E) = 1 - \pi Z a_0 / \beta + \ldots\) (with \(a_0 = e_0^2/4\pi\)) and inserts \(a_0 = a[1 + (2a/3\pi)\ln(1/m) + \ldots]\). The \(m\) singularity is associated with the renormalization of the vacuum-polarization graph of Fig. 2(a). - -With knowledge of the coefficients of \(\ln M\) and \(\ln m\), the coefficient of \(\ln E_m\) is determined, leading to the conclusion that the corrections to the total decay rate must be of the form: - -\[\frac{\overline{\Delta P}}{\overline{P}_0} = Z a^2 \left[ \ln\left(\frac{M}{2E_m}\right) - \ln\left(\frac{2E_m}{m}\right) + c + \ldots \right] \quad (1)\] - -for a point daughter nucleus, and a similar expression with \(M \to \Lambda\) when finite nuclear size is considered. Here the bars denote integration over the positron spectrum, \(c\) is a constant, and the ellipses stand for terms that vanish as \(m/E_m \to 0\) as well as very small energy-dependent contributions of \(O(E/M, E_m/\Lambda)\). - -Neglecting terms that vanish as \(m/E_m \to 0\) corresponds to treating the positrons in the extreme relativistic approximation (ERA). Because in all accurately measured superallowed decays the positron is relativistic throughout most of the spectrum, this is expected to be a good approximation, especially for high-\(Z\) nuclei. - -### 2.3 Discrepancy with Previous Results - -It is very difficult to reconcile the results of I and II with Eq. (1). The contribution from Fig. 1 was expressed in those papers as \(Z\alpha^2[\ln(M/m) + \Delta^0(E_0)]\), where \(E_0 = E_m/m\). The term \(\Delta^0(E_0)\) was evaluated numerically and found to be a positive and monotonically increasing function of \(E_0\). Instead, from Eq. (1) one expects contributions from Fig. 1 to be of the form: - -\[Z\alpha^2[\ln(M/2E_m) + c' + \ldots] = Z\alpha^2[\ln(M/m) - \ln(2E_0) + c' + \ldots]\] - -so that \(\Delta^0(E_0)\) should be a monotonically decreasing function of \(E_0\). Moreover, unless \(c'\) is a large positive constant, one expects \(\Delta^0(E_0)\) to be negative, especially for the high-\(Z\) cases. - ---- - -## 3. Detailed Calculation - -### 3.1 Point Nucleus Contribution from Figure 1 - -The starting point is the consideration of Fig. 1 for a point daughter nucleus. Only terms of leading order in \(M\) are retained because other contributions involve additional powers of \(k\) and \(q\) and, as explained in II, are suppressed by small factors of \(O(\Lambda/M)\) when finite nuclear size is considered. - -After evaluating the two-loop integrals over \(k\) and \(q\) and performing the appropriate traces, the contribution of Fig. 1 at the level of the positron spectrum is: - -\[\frac{\Delta P_1}{P_0} = \frac{2Z\alpha^2 M}{\pi} \int_0^1 \frac{u du}{(1-u)^{1/2}} \int_0^1 dv \int_0^1 dz \frac{1}{A^2} \left[ Lv \tan^{-1}\left(\frac{Lv}{X}\right) + \frac{9(L^2 v^2 - A^2)}{X} \frac{\pi}{2} + \ldots \right], \quad (2)\] - -where \(L\) is the three-momentum of the positron, \(A^2 \equiv a_0^2 - L^2(1-uv)\), \(X \equiv (A^2 - L^2 v^2)^{1/2}\), \(a_0 = Muv(1-z) + E(1-uv)\), and the ellipsis represents subdominant contributions. - -In the ERA, including subdominant contributions: - -\[\Delta P_1 = P_0 Z\alpha^2[\ln(M/2E) + 5/2 - \pi^2/6]. \quad (3)\] - -In the opposite (nonrelativistic) limit, setting \(L = 0\) in Eq. (2): - -\[\Delta P_1 = P_0 Z\alpha^2[\ln(M/m) + 4 - 6\ln 2].\] - -Writing \(\Delta P_1/P_0 = Z\alpha^2[\ln(M/E) + f(E)]\), one finds that \(f(E)\) varies from a small positive constant (\(\sim -0.16\)) in the extreme relativistic domain to a small negative one (\(\sim -0.16\)) in the NR limit, indicating that \(\ln(M/E)\) is by far the dominant contribution. - -### 3.2 Figure 2 Contributions - -The diagrams from Fig. 2 are much less important numerically. In the ERA: - -\[\Delta P_2 = P_0 Z\alpha^2\left[-\frac{5}{12}\ln(2E/m) + \frac{1}{9}\pi^2 - \frac{7}{18}\right]. \quad (4)\] - -### 3.3 Combined Result - -Combining Eqs. (3) and (4): - -\[\frac{\Delta P}{P_0} = Z\alpha^2\left[\ln\left(\frac{M}{2E}\right) - \frac{5}{12}\ln\left(\frac{2E}{m}\right) + \frac{43}{18}\right]. \quad (5)\] - -Averaging over the positron spectrum\(^{8}\): - -\[\frac{\overline{\Delta P}}{\overline{P}_0} = Z\alpha^2\left[\ln\left(\frac{M}{2E_m}\right) - \frac{5}{12}\ln\left(\frac{2E_m}{m}\right) + \frac{133}{36}\right], \quad (6)\] - -or, recalling \(E_0 = E_m/m\): - -\[\frac{\overline{\Delta P}}{\overline{P}_0} = Z\alpha^2\left[\ln\left(\frac{M}{m}\right) - \frac{17}{12}\ln(2E_0) + \frac{133}{36}\right]. \quad (7)\] - -Equation (6) is in agreement with the theoretically expected Eq. (1) and determines \(c = 133/36\). The constant \(c'\) is obtained by averaging Eq. (3): \(c' = \frac{5}{2} - \pi^2/6 + \frac{47}{60} \approx 1.64\). Thus \(-\ln(2E_0) + c'\) is negative for the eight decays, confirming the expectation that \(\Delta^0(E_0)\) should be negative. - ---- - -## 4. Finite Nuclear Size Effects - -Neglecting terms of \(O(\Lambda/M)\), the fractional correction is: - -\[\Delta = Z\alpha^2\left[1 - \gamma - \ln(Ma) - 4\pi \int_0^\infty \rho(r)r^2 \ln(r/a)dr\right],\] - -where \(\gamma = 0.5772\) and \(\rho(r)\) is the nuclear charge density of the daughter nucleus. - -For the modified Gaussian distribution\(^{9,10}\): \(\rho(r) = \mathrm{const}\times (1 + \alpha k^2 r^2/a^2)e^{-r^2 k^2/a^2}\) with \(k^2 = 3(2+5\alpha)/2(2+3\alpha)\) and \(\alpha = (Z-2)/3\): - -\[\Delta = -Z\alpha^2[\ln(M/\Lambda) + \kappa_1(Z)], \quad (8)\] - -where \(\kappa_1(Z) \equiv \frac{1}{2}[\gamma + \ln(3/2k^2) + 2\alpha/(2+3\alpha)]\) is a small constant varying from 0.33 for \(Z=7\) to 0.36 for \(Z=26\). - -For a uniformly charged sphere of radius \(R\) [\(a = (\frac{3}{5})^{1/2}R\)], \(\Delta\) is analogous with \(\kappa_1(Z)\) replaced by \(\kappa_2(Z) \equiv \gamma - \frac{4}{3} + \frac{1}{2}\ln 10 = 0.40\). - -The variation in \(\kappa\) is negligible; the authors use Eq. (8) with \(\kappa_1(Z) = 0.35\) and \(a = (\frac{3}{5})^{1/2}r_0 A^{1/3}\) fm (equivalently, \(M/\Lambda = r_0 A^{1/3}/0.665\)), with \(r_0\) given by Wilkinson.\(^{11}\) - -The sum \(\langle\delta_2(E)\rangle\) of Eqs. (7) and (8) is the final expression for the \(O(Z\alpha^2)\) corrections.\(^{12}\) - ---- - -## 5. Estimate of \(O(Z^2\alpha^3)\) Corrections - -An estimate of \(O(Z^2\alpha^3)\) corrections (residual contributions not contained in \(F(Z,E)(1+\delta_1+\delta_2)\)) is given. Jaus\(^{6}\) evaluated the coefficient of the ultraviolet logarithm from diagrams analogous to Fig. 1 (with one additional Coulombic photon attached to the positron). Based on the earlier discussion, this is identified as \(\ln(\Lambda/E)\). A heuristic estimate that includes \(m\) singularities is:\(^{14}\) - -\[\langle\delta_1^{\mathrm{HE}}(E)\rangle = Z^2 a^3 \left[ a\ln(\Lambda/E_m) + b\ln(2E_m/m) + d f(E)\ln(2E_m/m) + \ldots \right]\] - -where \(\alpha = 1.232\), \(b = (4/3\pi)(\frac{11}{4} - \gamma - \pi^2/6)\), \(d = 4/3\pi\), \(f(E) \equiv \ln(2E_m/m) - 5/6\), \(g(E) \equiv \frac{1}{2}[\ln^2(Rm) - \ln^2(2E/m)] + (\frac{5}{4})\ln(2RE)\), \(R = (\frac{5}{4})^{1/2}a\), and \(h = -0.649\) is a constant adjusted to cancel spurious \(m\) singularities. This will be used as an estimate of the error made in stopping the calculation at \(O(Z\alpha^2)\). - ---- - -## 6. Results: \(\mathcal{F}t\) Values and CVC Test - -**Table I** presents fractional radiative corrections (in percent) and \(\mathcal{F}t\) values: - -| Decay | \(\langle\delta_1^{\mathrm{qu}}\rangle\) | \(\langle\delta_2\rangle\) | \(\langle\delta_1^{\mathrm{HE}}\rangle\) | \(\mathcal{F}t\) (old)\(^a\) (s) | \(\mathcal{F}t\) (new)\(^b\) (s) | -|-------|---------------------|----------------|------------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------| -| \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) | 1.29 | 0.21 | 0.02 | 3075.5 ± 3.9 | 3073.4 ± 3.9 | -| \(^{26}\mathrm{Al}^{m}\) | 1.11 | 0.30 | 0.04 | 3072.9 ± 3.7 | 3066.9 ± 3.9 | -| \(^{34}\mathrm{Cl}\) | 1.00 | 0.35 | 0.06 | 3076.9 ± 4.7 | 3066.9 ± 5.0 | -| \(^{38}\mathrm{K}\) | 0.96 | 0.37 | 0.07 | 3076.6 ± 4.6 | 3064.2 ± 5.1 | -| \(^{42}\mathrm{Sc}\) | 0.94 | 0.40 | 0.08 | 3089.3 ± 7.5 | 3074.7 ± 7.9 | -| \(^{46}\mathrm{V}\) | 0.90 | 0.41 | 0.10 | 3088.6 ± 4.3 | 3071.3 ± 5.2 | -| \(^{50}\mathrm{Mn}\) | 0.87 | 0.43 | 0.11 | 3085.9 ± 5.7 | 3066.2 ± 6.5 | -| \(^{54}\mathrm{Co}\) | 0.84 | 0.44 | 0.12 | 3087.5 ± 4.4 | 3065.4 ± 5.7 | -| **Average** | | | | **3080.1 ± 2.4** | **3068.6 ± 1.8** | -| **CL** | | | | **3%** | **80%** | - -\(^a\) Taken from Ref. 4. -\(^b\) Modified values obtained in this paper on the basis of \((\delta_1^{\mathrm{qu}} + \delta_2)\); \(\langle\delta_1^{\mathrm{HE}}\rangle\) has been included as a theoretical error. - -The \(\langle\delta_2(E)\rangle\) correction ranges from 0.21% for \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) to 0.44% for \(^{54}\mathrm{Co}\), while the corresponding correction reported in II varies from 0.26% to 0.93%. The main difference can be traced to the evaluation of \(\Delta^0(E_0)\) arising from Fig. 1.\(^{13}\) A more physical characterization: while papers I and II state that the leading contribution is \(Z\alpha^2\ln(M/m)\), this analysis indicates the dominant contribution to the spectrum is roughly \(Z\alpha^2\ln(\Lambda/E)\), a significantly different logarithm. - -The overall pattern is much better than before. Seven of the \(\mathcal{F}t\) values differ from the new weighted average by \(< 1\sigma\), while \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) differs by 1.2\(\sigma\). The \(\chi^2/\nu\) for the old and new fits are 2.2 and 0.55, respectively (\(\nu = 7\)), corresponding to confidence levels of 3% and 80%. If \(\langle\delta_1^{\mathrm{HE}}\rangle\) is not included in the error, the CL is slightly reduced to 72%. - -The weighted averages of the four low-\(Z\) and four high-\(Z\) values are now \(3068.4\pm 2.2\) s and \(3069.0\pm 3.1\) s, respectively. Thus, the sharp discrepancy pointed out in Refs. 3 and 4 has disappeared. - ---- - -## 7. Standard Model Test and \(V_{ud}\) Determination - -**Table II** lists values of \(V_{ud}\) and \(V_{ud}^2 + V_{us}^2 + V_{ub}^2\) based on various combinations of the new \(\mathcal{F}t\) values and \(V_{us} = 0.220\pm 0.002\):\(^{17}\) - -| Combination | \(V_{ud}\) | \(V_{ud}^2 + V_{us}^2 + V_{ub}^2\) | -|-------------|--------|-------------------------------| -| (a) \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) | 0.9740 ± 0.0015 | 0.9971 ± 0.0031 | -| (b) Average of \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) and \(^{26}\mathrm{Al}^{m}\) | 0.9745 ± 0.0013 | 0.9981 ± 0.0027 | -| (c) Average of four low-\(Z\) decays | 0.9748 ± 0.0011 | 0.9986 ± 0.0023 | -| (d) Average of 8 decays | 0.9747 ± 0.0011 | 0.9984 ± 0.0023 | - -The treatment of inner corrections and calculation of errors is the same as in Ref. 2.\(^{16}\) There is now very good agreement between a large number of experiments and the three-generation SM, at the level of its quantum corrections. If the latter were not included, the unitarity bound would be exceeded by \(\approx 3.7\%\) and the SM would not be tenable. - -In spite of small errors, the possibility of a fourth generation with substantial mixing is still open. Using the last entry in Table II, one finds \(|V_{ub}| \leq 0.064\) (90% CL). These calculations can put sharp constraints on various types of new physics, as competing theories must match the SM at a high level of precision. On the experimental side, accurate measurements of \(^{10}\mathrm{C}\) (Ref. 18) and \(\pi\beta\) decay would be important to verify the consistent trend. - ---- - -## References - -1. A. Sirlin, Nucl. Phys. B71, 29 (1974); Rev. Mod. Phys. 50, 573 (1978); Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 461, 521 (1986). -2. W. J. Marciano and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 22 (1986). -3. I. S. Towner and J. C. Hardy, in *Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Atomic Masses and Fundamental Constants*, edited by O. Klepper (Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung, Darmstadt, 1984), p. 564. -4. V. T. Koslowsky et al., in Ref. 3, p. 572. -5. W. Jaus and G. Rasche, Nucl. Phys. A143, 202 (1970). -6. W. Jaus, Phys. Lett. 40, 616 (1972). -7. T. Kinoshita and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. 113, 1652 (1959); T. Kinoshita, J. Math. Phys. (N.Y.) 3, 650 (1962); T. D. Lee and M. Nauenberg, Phys. Rev. B 133, 1549 (1964). -8. The positron spectrum \(S(E)\) in the ERA: \(S(E)dE = E_0^2 x^2(1-x)^2 dx\), \(x \equiv E/E_m\), which leads to \(\langle\ln x\rangle = -\frac{1}{20}\). -9. R. Hofstadter, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Sci. 7, 231 (1957). -10. W. Jaus, Nucl. Phys. A177, 70 (1971). -11. D. H. Wilkinson, in *Nuclear Physics with Heavy Ions and Mesons*, edited by R. Balian, M. Rho, and G. Ripka (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1978), p. 877. -12. All reference to the nucleon (in contraposition to the nucleus) has disappeared in \(\delta_1(E)\), which strongly suggests that the leading contributions do not depend on the independent-particle model. -13. Note that an additional contribution of the form \(\mathrm{const}/E_0\) cannot explain the difference for all the nuclei. -14. A. Sirlin, unpublished. -15. A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. 164, 1767 (1967). -16. The \(\mathcal{F}t\) values from Ref. 4 include the Coulomb correction evaluated by I. S. Towner, J. C. Hardy, and M. Harvey, Nucl. Phys. A284, 296 (1977), with an allowance for theoretical uncertainties. In extracting \(V_{ud}\), the total errors in the \(\mathcal{F}t\) values have been further doubled (Ref. 2). -17. H. Leutwyler and M. Roos, Z. Phys. C 25, 91 (1984); J. Donoghue, B. Holstein, and S. Klimt, to be published. -18. The ERA is less reliable for low-\(Z\) decays such as \(^{10}\mathrm{C}\) but the \(O(Z\alpha^{2})\) corrections are less important for such cases. It would be desirable to perform new computer-based calculations that retain the small terms neglected in the ERA as well as those of \(O(\Lambda/M)\). diff --git a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/1987_Sirlin_remarks_on_OZa2_corrections.md b/docs/refs/electromagnetic/1987_Sirlin_remarks_on_OZa2_corrections.md deleted file mode 100644 index e4e0029..0000000 --- a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/1987_Sirlin_remarks_on_OZa2_corrections.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,210 +0,0 @@ -# Remarks concerning the \(O(Za^2)\) corrections to Fermi decays, conserved-vector-current predictions, and universality - -A. Sirlin - -*Physical Review D*, 1 June 1987 - -Department of Physics, New York University, New York, New York 10003 -(Received 2 December 1986; revised manuscript received 18 February 1987) - ---- - -## Abstract - -This article studies finite-nuclear-size contributions to the \(O(Za^2)\) corrections to Fermi decays using realistic nuclear-charge distributions. Combined with results from Koslowsky et al. and recent work by the author with Zucchini and by Jaus and Rasche, these refinements yield an average \(\mathcal{F}_t = 3070.6 \pm 1.6\) s for accurately measured superallowed Fermi transitions. Correspondingly, \(V_{ud} = 0.9744 \pm 0.0010\) and \(V_{ud}^2 + V_{us}^2 + V_{ub}^2 = 0.9979 \pm 0.0021\), in good agreement with the three-generation standard model at the level of its quantum corrections. Agreement with conserved-vector-current (CVC) predictions is very good, with each of the eight transitions differing from the average by \(< 1\sigma\). The consequences of using two other calculations of the nuclear mismatch correction \(\delta_c\) (Wilkinson's microscopic analysis and the recent results of Ormand and Brown) are briefly discussed. A useful upper bound on \(\mathcal{F}_t\), independent of the \(\delta_c\) calculation, is given. - ---- - -## 1. Introduction and Background - -After a 14-year hiatus, significant progress has been achieved in the analysis of the \(O(Za^2)\) corrections to Fermi decays, bringing highly accurate experiments into close agreement with CVC predictions and the standard model (SM) at the level of quantum corrections.\(^{1,2}\) - -The \(O(Za^2)\) corrections are defined as contributions of this order to the positron-nucleus interaction not contained in the product \(F(Z,E)(1 + \delta_1)\), where \(F(Z,E)\) is the Fermi function and \(\delta_1\) the \(O(\alpha)\) correction. An ingenious perturbative formalism to treat these residual corrections in the independent-particle model of \(\beta\) decay was developed by Jaus and Rasche in the early 1970s.\(^{3,4}\) Originally, these corrections relied heavily on numerical, computer-based calculations. - -When experiments on superallowed Fermi transitions reached \(\sim 0.1\%\) accuracy, a sharp discrepancy between low-\(Z\) and high-\(Z\) decays was found.\(^{5,6}\) The first recent theoretical progress occurred when an approximate analytic calculation, supported by general theorems of perturbative quantum field theory, revealed a sharp difference with the older numerical results. Reexamination of \(\mathcal{F}t\) values in light of new \(O(Za^2)\) corrections showed very good agreement with CVC and SM predictions.\(^{1}\) Subsequently, Jaus and Rasche reanalyzed the complicated two-loop calculations, found an error in the older work, and obtained answers completely consistent with the analytical work of Ref. 1.\(^{7}\) - -Some relatively small differences remain between Refs. 1 and 7 (referred to as I and II, respectively), concerning the treatment of finite-nuclear-size effects and small \(O(Z^2 a^3)\) corrections. This article provides explicit expressions for finite-nuclear-size effects in terms of realistic nuclear-charge distributions, compares results of I and II, modifies the treatment of \(O(Z^2 a^3)\) corrections, and discusses the effect of these refinements on CVC verification, SM tests, and determination of \(V_{ud}\). - ---- - -## 2. Classification of \(O(Za^2)\) Corrections - -The \(O(Za^2)\) corrections involve the exchange of a photon of momentum \(k\) and a Coulombic photon of momentum \(q\). The diagrams fall into two classes: - -- **Class (a)**: The \(k\) photon is interchanged between the decaying nucleons and the positron. -- **Class (b)**: The \(k\) photon is fully attached to the positron (pure QED correction). - -The sum of diagrams in each class is ultraviolet and infrared convergent. - -Class (a) contributions are further classified according to dependence on the nucleon mass \(M\): -- Terms of leading order in \(M\), called \(Za^2 \Delta_1\) in II, are complicated. Writing the charge form factor of the daughter nucleus as \(G(Q^2) = 1 + G(Q^2) - 1\) (with \(Q^2 \equiv -q^2 \geq 0\)), \(\Delta_1\) splits into: - - \(\Delta_1^0(E)\): corresponds to a point nucleus, depends on positron energy \(E\). - - \(\Delta_1^F\): arises from \(G(Q^2) - 1\), is energy independent (neglecting \(O(E/\Lambda)\) terms, where \(\Lambda \equiv \sqrt{6}/a\) and \(a\) is the rms nuclear charge radius), depends on the charge distribution. -- Terms not of leading order in \(M\): constants of first and higher orders in \(\Lambda/M\). Vector and axial-vector contributions are called \(Za^2 \Delta_2\) and \(Za^2 \Delta_3\), respectively. -- Class (b) diagrams are denoted by \(Z\alpha^{2}\Lambda_{4}(E)\) in II. - ---- - -## 3. Comparison of Analytic and Computer-Based Calculations - -Analytic expressions for \(\Delta_{1}^{0}(E)\) and \(\Delta_{4}(E)\) obtained in the extreme relativistic approximation (ERA) are given in paper I. In the ERA, the sum is: - -\[\Delta_{1}^{0}(E) + \Delta_{4}(E)\equiv \ln (M / m) - \frac{5}{12}\ln (2E / m) + \frac{43}{18}, \quad (1)\] - -where \(m\) is the positron mass. - -**Table I** compares Eq. (1) with the new computer-based calculations of paper II: - -| \(p/m\) | \(\Delta_1+\Delta_4\) [Eq. (1)] | \(\Delta_1+\Delta_4\) (II) | Diff. (%) | \(\delta P(E)\) (Z=26) (%) | -|--------|---------------------------|----------------------|------------|------------------------| -| 0.1 | 8.74 | 8.99 | -2.8 | -0.03 | -| 0.5 | 8.56 | 8.48 | +0.9 | +0.01 | -| 1.0 | 8.17 | 7.98 | +2.4 | +0.03 | -| 5.0 | 6.03 | 6.01 | +0.3 | 0.00 | -| 10.0 | 4.90 | 4.93 | -0.6 | 0.00 | -| 16.0 | 4.12 | 4.18 | -1.4 | -0.01 | - -The numerical calculation agrees remarkably well with the analytic expression, and the difference has a very small effect on the decay probability and \(\mathcal{F}t\) values. - ---- - -## 4. Finite-Nuclear-Size Effects - -### 4.1 General Expressions - -After neglecting terms of \(O(E/\Lambda)\) and performing integrations, \(\Delta_{1}^{F}\) can be written as: - -\[\Delta_{1}^{F} = \frac{4}{\pi^{2}}\int_{0}^{1}\left[\frac{u}{1 - u}\right]^{1 / 2}du\int_{0}^{1}dv\int_{0}^{\infty}\frac{dQ}{Q} [G(Q^{2}) - 1]\arctan \left[\frac{Mu^{1 / 2}v}{Q(1 - u)^{1 / 2}}\right]. \quad (2)\] - -Evaluating this for a spherically symmetric charge distribution \(\rho(r)\) (normalized such that \(\int \rho(r)d^{3}r = 1\)) yields: - -\[\Delta_{1}^{F} = 1 - \gamma -4\pi \int_{0}^{\infty}\rho (r)r^{2}\ln (Mr)d r\] \[-(8 / M)\int_{0}^{\infty}\rho (r)r[1 + \gamma +\ln (Mr)]d r~, \quad (4)\] - -where \(\gamma = 0.5772\ldots\), and terms of \(O((\Lambda/M)^{3})\) are neglected. - -The contributions from \(\Delta_{2}\) and \(\Delta_{3}\) are: - -\[\Delta_{2} = (4 / M)\int_{0}^{\infty}\rho (r)r dr(1 - \pi /4Mr), \quad (5)\] - -\[\Delta_{3} = \frac{8g_{A}(1 + \mu\nu)}{M}\int_{0}^{\infty}\rho (r)r\left[\gamma +\ln (Mr) - \frac{1}{2} +\frac{\pi}{8Mr}\right]dr, \quad (6)\] - -where \(g_{A} = 1.25\), \(1 + \mu \nu = 4.70\) arises from the isovector magnetic moment of the nucleon, and terms of \(O((\Lambda/M)^3)\) are neglected. - -### 4.2 Specific Nuclear Models - -**Uniformly charged sphere** of radius \(R = (\frac{2}{3})^{1 / 2}a = 10^{1 / 2} / \Lambda\): - -\[\begin{array}{l}{\Delta_{1}^{F} = \ln \left[\frac{\Lambda}{M}\right] - \kappa_{2} - \frac{3}{10^{1 / 2}\pi}\frac{\Lambda}{M}\left[\frac{1}{2} +\gamma +\ln 10^{1 / 2} + \ln \left[\frac{M}{\Lambda}\right]\right],}\\ {\Delta_{2} = \frac{3}{2\times 10^{1 / 2}\pi}\frac{\Lambda}{M}\left[1 - \frac{\pi}{2\times 10^{1 / 2}}\frac{\Lambda}{M}\right],}\\ {\Delta_{3} = \frac{3}{10^{1 / 2}\pi}g_{A}(1 + \mu \nu)\frac{\Lambda}{M}\left[\gamma -1 + \ln 10^{1 / 2} + \ln \left[\frac{M}{\Lambda}\right] + \frac{\pi}{4\times 10^{1 / 2}}\frac{\Lambda}{M}\right],} \end{array} \quad (7)\] - -where \(\kappa_{2}\equiv \gamma -\frac{4}{3} +\ln 10^{1 / 2} = 0.395\). - -**Modified Gaussian model** \(\rho(r) = \mathrm{const}\times (1 + \alpha k^{2}r^{2} / a^{2})e^{- r^{2}k^{2} / a^{2}}\) with \(\alpha = (Z - 2) / 3\), \(k^{2} = (\frac{3}{2})(2 + 5\alpha) / (2 + 3\alpha)\) (Ref. 8): - -\[\begin{array}{l}{\Delta_{1}^{F} = \ln \left[\frac{\Lambda}{M}\right] - \kappa_{1}(Z) - \frac{8}{(6\pi^{3})^{1 / 2}}\frac{k}{2 + 3\alpha}\frac{\Lambda}{M}\left[\left[1 + \frac{\gamma}{2} +\ln \left[\frac{6^{1 / 2}}{k}\frac{M}{\Lambda}\right]\right](1 + \alpha) + \frac{\alpha}{2}\right],}\\ {\Delta_{2} = \frac{4}{(6\pi^{3})^{1 / 2}}\frac{k}{2 + 3\alpha}\frac{\Lambda}{M}\left[1 + \alpha -\left[\frac{\pi^{3}}{96}\right]^{1 / 2}\frac{k}{M}\left[1 + \frac{\alpha}{2}\right]\right],}\\ {\Delta_{3} = \frac{8}{(6\pi^{3})^{1 / 2}}g_{A}(1 + \mu \nu)\frac{k}{2 + 3\alpha}\frac{\Lambda}{M}\left[\left[\frac{\gamma - 1}{2} +\ln \left[\frac{6^{1 / 2}}{k}\frac{M}{\Lambda}\right]\right](1 + \alpha) + \frac{\alpha}{2} +\left[\frac{\pi^{3}}{6}\right]^{1 / 2}\frac{k}{8}\frac{\Lambda}{M}\right],} \end{array} \quad (10)\] - -where \(\kappa_{1}(Z)\equiv \frac{1}{2} [\gamma +\ln (3 / 2k^{2}) + 2\alpha /(2 + 3\alpha)]\). - ---- - -## 5. Results for Finite-Nuclear-Size Contributions - -**Table II** lists values for \(\Delta^{F}\equiv \Delta_{1}^{F} + \Delta_{2} + \Delta_{3}\) for the uniformly charged sphere (UCS), modified Gaussian (MG), and Yukawa (Y) models, and the corresponding \(\langle \delta_{2}(E)\rangle\) values: - -| Nucleus | \(\Delta^{F}\) (Y) | \(\Delta^{F}\) (UCS) | \(\Delta^{F}\) (MG) | \(\langle\delta_{2}\rangle\) (Y) (%) | \(\langle\delta_{2}\rangle\) (MG) (%) | -|---------|---------------|----------------|----------------|--------------------------|---------------------------| -| \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) | -0.68 | -1.39 | -1.31 | 0.24 | 0.22 | -| \(^{26}\mathrm{Al}^{m}\) | -0.99 | -1.60 | -1.53 | 0.35 | 0.32 | -| \(^{34}\mathrm{Cl}\) | -1.12 | -1.69 | -1.64 | 0.43 | 0.39 | -| \(^{38}\mathrm{K}^{m}\) | -1.17 | -1.73 | -1.73 | 0.46 | 0.41 | -| \(^{42}\mathrm{Sc}\) | -1.22 | -1.77 | -1.72 | 0.50 | 0.45 | -| \(^{46}\mathrm{V}\) | -1.26 | -1.80 | -1.75 | 0.53 | 0.47 | -| \(^{50}\mathrm{Mn}\) | -1.30 | -1.83 | -1.79 | 0.55 | 0.49 | -| \(^{54}\mathrm{Co}\) | -1.33 | -1.86 | -1.82 | 0.57 | 0.50 | - -The UCS and MG models give very similar answers; both differ significantly from the Yukawa results because \(\Lambda^{2}/(\Lambda^{2}+Q^{2})\) is not a realistic representation of nuclear charge form factors (it decreases too slowly as \(Q^{2}\) increases and has a singularity at \(r=0\)). - ---- - -## 6. \(\mathcal{F}t\) Values and CVC Test - -**Table III** presents the fractional radiative corrections and \(\mathcal{F}t\) values: - -| Decay | \(\langle\delta_{1}^{m}\rangle\) (%) | \(\langle\delta_{2}\rangle^{m}\) (%) | \(\langle\delta_{3}^{m}\rangle\) (%) | \(\mathcal{F}t\) (s) | -|-------|--------------------------|------------------------------|-------------------------------|----------------| -| \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) | 1.29 | 0.22 | 0.01 | 3074.0 ± 3.9 | -| \(^{26}\mathrm{Al}^{m}\) | 1.11 | 0.32 | 0.02 | 3068.1 ± 3.7 | -| \(^{34}\mathrm{Cl}\) | 1.00 | 0.39 | 0.03 | 3069.0 ± 4.7 | -| \(^{38}\mathrm{K}^{m}\) | 0.96 | 0.41 | 0.04 | 3066.6 ± 4.6 | -| \(^{42}\mathrm{Sc}\) | 0.94 | 0.45 | 0.04 | 3077.5 ± 7.5 | -| \(^{46}\mathrm{V}\) | 0.90 | 0.47 | 0.05 | 3074.7 ± 4.3 | -| \(^{50}\mathrm{Mn}\) | 0.87 | 0.49 | 0.05 | 3069.6 ± 5.7 | -| \(^{54}\mathrm{Co}\) | 0.84 | 0.50 | 0.06 | 3069.0 ± 4.4 | -| **Average** | | | | **3070.6 ± 1.6** | - -The \(\chi^{2}/\nu\) is 0.57, corresponding to a 78% confidence level. Each of the eight accurately measured Fermi transitions stands within \(1\sigma\) of the average, in very good agreement with CVC predictions. - -The difference of 2 sec between the average \(\mathcal{F}t = 3070.6\pm 1.6\) sec and the result of paper I is due to inclusion of \(O(\Lambda/M)\) terms (≈0.9 sec) and \(O(Z^{2}\alpha^{3})\) terms (≈1.1 sec). The difference of 1.8 sec with paper II is mainly due to use of realistic nuclear charge distributions. - ---- - -## 7. Determination of \(V_{ud}\) and Standard Model Test - -**Table IV** lists values of \(V_{ud}\) and \(V_{ud}^{2} + V_{us}^{2} + V_{ub}^{2}\) obtained from various combinations of \(\mathcal{F}t\) values, using \(V_{us} = 0.220\pm 0.002\) (Ref. 13): - -| Combination | \(V_{ud}\) | \(V_{ud}^{2}+V_{us}^{2}+V_{ub}^{2}\) | -|-------------|---------|-------------------------------| -| \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) | 0.9739 ± 0.0015 | 0.9969 ± 0.0031 | -| Average of \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\) and \(^{26}\mathrm{Al}^{m}\) | 0.9744 ± 0.0012 | 0.9979 ± 0.0025 | -| Average of 4 low-Z decays | 0.9746 ± 0.0011 | 0.9982 ± 0.0023 | -| Average of 8 decays | 0.9744 ± 0.0010 | 0.9979 ± 0.0021 | - -The results are in very good agreement with the third-generation SM at the level of its quantum corrections. Such accurate agreement can be used to derive interesting constraints on new physics.\(^{14}\) - ---- - -## 8. Dependence on Nuclear Mismatch Corrections \(\delta_c\) - -Using the same radiative corrections and errors as in Table III, results based on alternative \(\delta_c\) calculations are: - -- **Wilkinson (W)** (Ref. 9): \((\mathcal{F}t)_{\mathrm{ave}} = 3069.8\pm 1.6\) s (\(\chi^{2}/\nu = 0.97\)) -- **Ormand and Brown (OB)** (Ref. 15): \((\mathcal{F}t)_{\mathrm{ave}} = 3076.1\pm 1.6\) s (\(\chi^{2}/\nu = 1.01\)) -- **Towner-Hardy-Harvey (THH)** (Ref. 12): 3070.6 ± 1.6 s (\(\chi^{2}/\nu = 0.57\)) [Table III] - -All fits with the older \(O(Z\alpha^{2})\) corrections were very poor, so the new results are highly significant. The THH and W calculations lead to similar averages, while the OB result differs from THH by +0.18%, implying \(V_{ud} = 0.9735\pm 0.0010\) and \(V_{ud}^{2} + V_{us}^{2} + V_{ub}^{2} = 0.9962 \pm 0.0021\). - -### Model-Independent Upper Bound - -Assuming all corrections except \(\delta_c\) are well understood and \(\delta_c > 0\), the lowest \(\mathcal{F}t\) value calculated with \(\delta_c = 0\) provides an upper bound. From \(^{26}\mathrm{Al}^{m}\) data, \(\mathcal{F}t \leq 3078.6\pm 1.4\) s. The THH and W \(\delta_c\) values essentially obey this bound, but the central values of \(^{14}\mathrm{O}\), \(^{34}\mathrm{Cl}\), \(^{42}\mathrm{Sc}\), and \(^{46}\mathrm{V}\) \(\mathcal{F}t\) values calculated with OB \(\delta_c\) values are somewhat larger. - -### Alternative Determination - -Using the \(\mathcal{F}t\) value for \(^{26}\mathrm{Al}^{m}\) calculated with \(\delta_c = (0.34\pm 0.08)\%\) (the average of THH, W, and OB values, with error covering the range) leads to \((\mathcal{F}t)_{\mathrm{Al}} = 3068.1\pm 2.8\) s, corresponding to \(V_{ud} = 0.9748\pm 0.0010\) and \(V_{ud}^{2} + V_{us}^{2} + V_{ub}^{2} = 0.9986 \pm 0.0021\). This is compatible with the Table IV determination. - ---- - -## 9. Discussion and Conclusions - -The claim by Drukarev and Strikman\(^{16}\) that screening due to atomic electrons is considerably larger than given by conventional theory\(^{9}\) is noted: inclusion of their additional screening correction would worsen the very good fit of Table III. - -The discrepancies mentioned are at the 0.1–0.2% level—accuracies seldom attained in particle physics—and are much smaller than the overall quantum corrections of ∼4%. It is hoped that nuclear and atomic theorists and \(\beta\)-decay experimentalists will reexamine these small corrections in light of the new \(O(Za^{2})\) calculations. Accurate measurements of \(C\) and \(\pi \beta\) decays would be most welcome. - ---- - -## References - -1. A. Sirlin and R. Zucchini, Phys. Rev. Lett. 57, 1994 (1986) (called I). -2. A. Sirlin, Nucl. Phys. B71, 29 (1974); Rev. Mod. Phys. 50, 573 (1978); Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 461, 521 (1986). -3. W. Jaus and G. Rasche, Nucl. Phys. A143, 202 (1970); Aust. J. Phys. 39, 1 (1986). -4. W. Jaus, Phys. Lett. 40, 616 (1972). -5. I. S. Towner and J. C. Hardy, in *Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Atomic Masses and Fundamental Constants*, edited by O. Klepper (Gesselschaft fur Schwerionenforschung, Darmstadt, 1984), p. 564. -6. V. T. Koslowsky et al., in *Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Atomic Masses and Fundamental Constants* (Ref. 5), p. 572. -7. W. Jaus and G. Rasche, Phys. Rev. D 35, 3420 (1987) (called II). -8. R. Hofstadter, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Sci. 7, 231 (1957). -9. D. H. Wilkinson, in *Nuclear Physics with Heavy Ions and Mesons*, edited by R. Balian, M. Rho, and G. Ripka (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1978), p. 877. -10. In paper I the factor \(a\) in the term \(Z^{2}a^{3}a\ln (A / E)\) must be changed to \(a = (\pi^{2} / 3 - \frac{1}{2}) / \pi = 0.5697\) to reflect the new result of Jaus and Rasche (II) concerning the leading logarithm of \(O(Z^{2}a^{3})\) and, in the definition of \(f(E)\), \(E_{m}\) should be replaced by \(E\) to correct a misprint. -11. W. J. Marciano and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 22 (1986). -12. I. S. Towner, J. C. Hardy, and M. Harvey, Nucl. Phys. A284, 296 (1977). -13. H. Leutwyler and M. Roos, Z. Phys. C 25, 91 (1984); J. Donoghue, B. Holstein, and S. Klimt (unpublished). -14. W. J. Marciano and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. D 35, 1672 (1987). -15. W. E. Ormand and B. A. Brown, in *Weak and Electromagnetic Interactions in Nuclei*, proceedings of the International Symposium Heidelberg, July 1986, edited by H. V. Klapdor (Springer, Berlin, 1986), p. 545. -16. E. G. Drukarev and M. I. Strikman, Leningrad Nuclear Physics Institute Report No. 1221, 1986 (unpublished). diff --git a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/2011_Sirlin_radiative_correction_to_nu_spectrum.md b/docs/refs/electromagnetic/2011_Sirlin_radiative_correction_to_nu_spectrum.md deleted file mode 100644 index e995dfe..0000000 --- a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/2011_Sirlin_radiative_correction_to_nu_spectrum.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,207 +0,0 @@ -# Radiative correction to the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}(\nu_{e})\) spectrum in \(\beta\) decay - -A. Sirlin - -*Physical Review D*, 84, 014021 (2011) - -Department of Physics, New York University, 4 Washington Place, New York, New York 10003, USA -(Received 18 May 2011; published 19 July 2011) - -DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.84.014021 -PACS numbers: 13.30.Ce, 13.40.Ks - ---- - -## I. INTRODUCTION - -The \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) radiative correction (RC) to the \(e^{-}(e^{+})\) spectrum has played an important role in precision studies of \(\beta\) decay. It is described by a RC \((\alpha/2\pi)g(E,E_{0})\), where \(E\) and \(E_{0}\) are the energy and end-point energy of the \(e^{-}(e^{+})\) [1,2]. This RC is not contained in Fermi's Coulomb function \(F(Z,E)\), which is separately included. The effect of \((\alpha/2\pi)g(E,E_{0})\) on the spectrum shape is significant, particularly for large values of \(E_{0}\) [1,3]. It also gives important contributions to theoretical calculations of the \(\mathcal{F}t\)-values of superallowed \((0^{+}\rightarrow 0^{+})\) Fermi transitions [4] and the neutron lifetime [5]. - -The superallowed Fermi transitions play a crucial role in the precise verification of the unitarity of the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix. The current analysis, which includes large short-distance effects [4], the RC \((\alpha/2\pi)g(E,E_{0})\), and a number of more recent refinements [5,6], leads to the conclusion [7]: - -\[|V_{ud}|^2 +|V_{us}|^2 +|V_{ub}|^2 = 0.99995(61), \quad (1)\] - -an impressive test of the three-generation standard theory at the level of its quantum corrections. The overall electroweak corrections to Eq. (1) are of \(\mathcal{O}(4\%)\), i.e., 66 times larger than the \(0.061\%\) error. - -The correction \((\alpha/2\pi)g\), in conjunction with short-distance effects and refinements discussed in Refs. [4-6], has also been recently applied to the calculation of the muon capture rate in the singlet state of \(\mathrm{H}\) [8]. - -The aim of this paper is to derive the corresponding RC to the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}(\nu_{e})\) spectrum in allowed \(\beta\) decay, which is of considerable current interest for reactor studies of neutrino oscillations [9-11]. - ---- - -## II. RADIATIVE CORRECTION TO THE \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) (\(\nu_{e}\)) SPECTRUM - -As in Ref. [1], the basic process of neutron \(\beta\) decay, \(n\rightarrow p + e^{-} + \bar{\nu}_{e}\), is considered, neglecting terms of \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha E/M)\) where \(M\) is the nucleon mass. - -### A. Virtual Corrections and Zeroth Order Spectrum - -The \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) virtual RC, as well as the zeroth order transition probability, are obtained from those in the \(e^{-}\) spectrum by simply replacing \(E\rightarrow \hat{E}, p\rightarrow \hat{p}, \beta\rightarrow \hat{\beta}\), where \(E\), \(p\), and \(m\) are the \(e^{-}\) energy, momentum, and mass, \(\beta = p/E\), \(K\) is the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) energy, and \(\hat{E}\), \(\hat{p}\), and \(\hat{\beta}\) are defined by: - -\[\hat{E}\equiv E_0 - K;\qquad \hat{p}\equiv (\hat{E}^2 - m^2)^{1/2};\qquad \hat{\beta}\equiv \hat{p}/\hat{E}. \quad (2)\] - -The reason is that in deriving the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) spectrum, one integrates over the \(e^{-}\) phase space factor \(d^3 p / 2E\) rather than the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\)'s \(d^3 K / 2K\), with energy conservation expressed by \(\delta(E_0 - K - E)\). - -### B. Inner Bremsstrahlung Contributions - -The inner bremsstrahlung (IB) contributions present more subtle and theoretically interesting differences with the \(e^{-}\) spectrum. - -Calling \(\epsilon_{\gamma}\) the radiated photon energy, the IB amplitude involves two terms: the first behaves as \(1/\epsilon_{\gamma}\) as \(\epsilon_{\gamma}\to 0\); the second is of \(\mathcal{O}(\epsilon_{\gamma}^{0})\). The square of the absolute value of the first term, combined with the \(d^{3}k / 2\epsilon_{\gamma}\) photon phase space factor (\(k\) is the photon momentum), leads to the infrared (IR) divergent contribution. The interference of the two terms and the square of the absolute value of the second are IR convergent and are evaluated separately. - -As in [1], the IR divergence is regularized by introducing an infinitesimal photon mass \(\lambda_{\mathrm{min}}\) so that \(\epsilon_{\gamma} = (k^{2} + \lambda_{\mathrm{min}}^{2})^{1/2}\). After integrating over the proton and electron momenta, as well as the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) direction, the IR contribution is proportional to \(\int_{0}^{k_{m}}(d^{3}k / 2\epsilon_{\gamma}^{3})f(\epsilon_{\gamma},\nu)\), where: - -\[\begin{array}{r}f(\epsilon_{\gamma},\nu) = pE\{(1 / \beta \nu)\ln [(1 + \beta \nu) / (1 - \beta \nu)]\\ -(1 - \beta^{2}) / (1 - \beta^{2}\nu^{2}) - 1\}, \end{array} \quad (3)\] - -\(\nu = k / \epsilon_{\gamma}\), \(k_{m} = \hat{E} - m\) is the maximum photon energy for given \(K\), and it is understood that: - -\[E = \hat{E} - \epsilon_{\gamma}, \quad (4)\] - -which follows from energy conservation. - -The complicated dependence of \(f(\epsilon_{\gamma},\nu)\) on \(\epsilon_{\gamma}\) and \(\nu\) hinders the subsequent integration over photon momenta. A convenient strategy is to split \(f(\epsilon_{\gamma},\nu)\) according to: - -\[f(\epsilon_{\gamma},\nu) = f(0,\nu) + [f(\epsilon_{\gamma},\nu) - f(0,\nu)]. \quad (5)\] - -The IR divergence arises from \(f(0,\nu)\), a function that only involves photon momenta through its dependence on \(\nu\). Changing the integration variable from \(k\) to \(\nu\), the integral \(\int_{0}^{k_{m}}(d^{3}k / 2\epsilon_{\gamma}^{3})f(0,\nu)\) can be performed analytically and leads to a function of \(\hat{\beta}\) and \(\ln(k_{m}/\lambda_{\mathrm{min}})\). Its combination with the virtual \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) RC is well defined since the IR divergences cancel exactly. - -The integration of the second term in Eq. (5) is IR convergent, so we set \(\lambda_{\mathrm{min}} = 0\) (\(\nu = 1\)) and replace \(f(\epsilon_{\gamma},\nu) - f(0,\nu) \rightarrow f(k,1) - f(0,1)\). In this latter expression, the \(\epsilon_{\gamma} = k\) dependence is contained in \(E\) and, therefore, also in \(p\), \(\beta\), and \(f(k,1)\) (cf. Equations 3 and 4). - -Changing the variable of integration from \(k\) to \(E\) via Eq. (4), the integral \(\int d^{3}k / 2k^{3}[f(k,1) - f(0,1)]\) can also be performed analytically. This includes the integral: - -\[I = \int_{m / \hat{E}}^{1}d t\ln (1 - t) / (t^{2} - m^{2} / \hat{E}^{2})^{1/2}, \quad (6)\] - -for which a compact analytic representation has been derived: - -\[I = -\mathrm{Li}_{2}(2\hat{\beta} /(1 + \hat{\beta})) + \mathrm{tanh}^{-1}\hat{\beta}\ln (2\hat{\beta}^{2} / (1 + \hat{\beta})), \quad (7)\] - -where: - -\[\mathrm{Li}_{2}(z) = -\int_{0}^{z}(d t / t)\ln (1 - t) \quad (8)\] - -is the dilogarithm. - -The \(d^{3}k\) integration of the two remaining contributions—the interference of the two terms in the IB amplitude and the absolute value square of the second—are IR convergent. Changing again the variable of integration from \(k\) to \(E\) via Eq. (4), they can also be performed analytically. - -### C. Final Expression for \(h(\hat{E},E_0)\) - -Combining all the \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) contributions, the radiatively corrected expression for the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) spectrum is: - -\[dP_{\nu} = dP_{\nu}^{0}[1 + (\alpha /2\pi)h(\hat{E},E_0)], \quad (9)\] - -where: - -\[dP_{\nu}^{0} = A\hat{p}\hat{E}F(Z,\hat{E})K^{2}dK \quad (10)\] - -is the zeroth order spectrum, and: - -\[\begin{array}{l}{h(\hat{E},E_0) = 3\ln \left(\frac{m_{p}}{m}\right) + \frac{23}{4} -\frac{8}{\beta}\mathrm{Li}_{2}\left(\frac{2\hat{\beta}}{\mathrm{1} + \hat{\beta}}\right)}\\ {+8\left(\frac{\tanh^{-1}\hat{\beta}}{\hat{\beta}} -1\right)\ln \left(\frac{2\hat{E}\hat{\beta}}{m}\right)}\\ {+4\frac{\tanh^{-1}\hat{\beta}}{\hat{\beta}}\left[\frac{7 + 3\hat{\beta}^{2}}{8} -2\tanh^{-1}\hat{\beta}\right],} \end{array} \quad (11)\] - -where \(m_{p}\) is the proton mass. In Eq. (10), \(F(Z,\hat{E})\) is the Fermi Coulomb function evaluated at \(E = \hat{E}\), and \(A\) is a constant independent of \(K\). In neutron \(\beta\) decay, for example, \(A = (g_{V}^{2} + 3g_{A}^{2}) / 2\pi^{3}\), where \(g_{V} = G_{F}V_{ud}\) and \(g_{A}\) are the vector and axial vector coupling constants. - -In analogy with the \(e^{-}\) spectrum case [1], Eqs. (9) and (11) can be applied to allowed nuclear \(\beta\) decay using an independent particle model of the nucleus. In that case, \(g_{V}^{2} + 3g_{A}^{2}\) is replaced by \(g_{V}^{2}|M_{F}|^{2} + g_{A}^{2}|M_{\mathrm{GT}}|^{2}\), where \(M_{\mathrm{F}}\) and \(M_{\mathrm{GT}}\) are the Fermi and Gamow-Teller matrix elements. Equation (11) is valid for both \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) and \(\nu_{e}\) transitions. - -Large additional electroweak corrections in the standard theory give very important contributions to the \(\mathcal{F}t\)-values of superallowed Fermi transitions and the neutron lifetime. However, they are constants independent of \(K\) and \(E\), so they do not affect the shape of the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) and \(e^{-}\) spectra and are not included in this discussion. - -### D. The \(m \rightarrow 0\) Limit - -Equation (11) simplifies considerably in the \(m\rightarrow 0\) (\(\hat{\beta}\rightarrow 1\)) limit. Noting that \(\tanh^{-1}\hat{\beta} = \ln[\hat{E}(1+\hat{\beta})/m]\) and \(\mathrm{Li}_{2}(1) = \pi^{2}/6\): - -\[\lim_{m\to 0}h(\hat{E},E_0) = 3\ln \left(\frac{m_p}{2E_0}\right) + \frac{23}{4} -\frac{4\pi^2}{3} -3\ln (1 - y), \quad (12)\] - -where \(y = K / E_0\). Thus, the \(m\rightarrow 0\) limit of \(h(\hat{E},E_0)\) is **convergent** and has a very simple form. - -### E. Comparison with the Electron Spectrum Correction - -This is in sharp contrast with the behavior of \(g(E,E_0)\), the function that describes the RC to the \(e^{-}(e^{+})\) spectrum. In the relativistic \(m^{2}\ll E^{2}\) limit: - -\[\begin{array}{rl} & {g(E,E_0)}\\ & {\quad \rightarrow 3\ln \left(\frac{m_{p}}{2E_0}\right) - \frac{3}{4} -\frac{2\pi^{2}}{3} +4(\ln x - 1)}\\ & {\quad \times \left[\frac{1 - x}{3x} -\frac{3}{2} +\ln \left(\frac{1 - x}{x}\right)\right] + \frac{(1 - x)^2}{6x^{2}}\ln x}\\ & {\quad +\ln \left(\frac{2E_0}{m}\right)\left[\frac{4(1 - x)}{3x} -3 + \frac{(1 - x)^2}{6x^{2}} +4\ln \left(\frac{1 - x}{x}\right)\right],} \end{array} \quad (13)\] - -where \(x = E / E_0\). Equation (13) can be gleaned from the expression between curly brackets in Eq. (4.4) of Ref. [3], after subtracting \(6\ln(\lambda/m_p) + 9/4\) (cf. footnote 23 in Ref. [1]). Thus, the correction to the electron spectrum **diverges logarithmically** in the \(m\rightarrow 0\) limit. - -If one multiplies Eq. (13) by \(x^{2}(1-x)^{2}\) (the energy dependence of the zeroth order probability in the \(m\rightarrow 0\) limit) and integrates over \(0\leq x\leq 1\), the cofactor of \(\ln(2E_0/m)\) vanishes, so the correction to the inverse lifetime is indeed free from the electron "mass singularity" [3,12,13]. - -### F. Theoretical Explanation - -The fact that \(h(\hat{E},E_0)\) is convergent in the \(m\rightarrow 0\) limit while \(g(E,E_0)\) is not can be explained theoretically: For given \(K\), in the \(m\rightarrow 0\) limit, all collinear \(e-\gamma\) configurations become energy degenerate with energy \(E_0 - K\) and generally give rise to mass singularities. An elementary but powerful theorem in quantum mechanics leads to the conclusion that these singularities are cancelled in the power series expansions of transition probabilities if the latter are summed over an appropriate ensemble of such degenerate states [13]. In deriving the corrections to the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}(\nu_{e})\) spectrum, the \(d^{3}p\) and \(d^{3}k\) integrations are performed, so indeed one sums over the set of collinear \(e-\gamma\) configurations that become energy degenerate in the \(m\rightarrow 0\) limit. Thus, \(h(\hat{E},E_0)\) should be free of \(\ln m\) singularities, as found. In contrast, this is not the case in the derivation of the electron spectrum, since the \(d^{3}p\) integration is not carried out. - -### G. Consistency Check and Illustrative Examples - -A useful consistency check: Multiplying Eq. (12) by \(y^{2}(1-y)^{2}\) and Eq. (13) by \(x^{2}(1-x)^{2}\) and integrating over \(x\) and \(y\) from 0 to 1 yields equal results, since both lead to the correction to the inverse lifetime. This has been verified to high accuracy. - -As an illustrative example, for \(E_0 = 8\mathrm{MeV}\): - -- The RC \((\alpha/2\pi)h(\hat{E},E_0)\) to the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}(\nu_{e})\) spectrum **increases** the transition probability by \(1.17\%\) at \(y = 0.8\) (\(K = 6.4\mathrm{MeV}\)) and by \(0.64\%\) at \(y = 0.2\) (\(K = 1.6\mathrm{MeV}\)). This behavior is reflected in Eq. (12), which shows a positive, monotonically increasing function of \(y\). -- The RC \((\alpha/2\pi)g(E,E_0)\) to the \(e^{-}(e^{+})\) spectrum **decreases** the transition probability by \(1.13\%\) at \(x = 0.8\) (\(E = 6.4\mathrm{MeV}\)) and **increases** it by \(2.90\%\) at \(x = 0.2\) (\(E = 1.6\mathrm{MeV}\)). This can be qualitatively understood by noting that the cofactor of \(\ln(2E_0/m)\) in Eq. (13) is negative for \(x\geq 0.44\) and positive for \(x\leq 0.44\). - -Equations (12) and (13) provide very good approximations to the exact expressions when \((E_0-K)^{2}\gg m^{2}\) and \(E^{2}\gg m^{2}\), respectively. As shown in Ref. [1], the \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) RC to the shape of the \(e^{-}(e^{+})\) spectrum is not affected by strong interactions if terms of \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha E/M)\) are neglected; the same conclusion applies to the \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) RC to the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}(\nu_{e})\) spectrum. - ---- - -## III. RADIATIVE CORRECTION TO THE CONVERSION FROM THE \(e^{-}\) SPECTRUM TO THE \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) SPECTRUM - -Including the \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) RC, the theoretical expressions for the \(e^{-}\) and \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) spectra in allowed \(\beta\) decay can be cast in the form: - -\[\frac{dP_e}{dE} = f_e(E,E_0), \quad (14)\] - -\[\frac{dP_\nu}{dK} = f_\nu (K,E_0), \quad (15)\] - -where: - -\[\begin{array}{r}{f_{e}(E,E_{0}) = A p E(E_{0} - E)^{2}F(Z,E)\Big[1 + \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} g(E,E_{0})\Big],} \end{array} \quad (16)\] - -\[\begin{array}{r}{f_{\nu}(K,E_{0}) = A\hat{p}\hat{E} K^{2}F(Z,\hat{E})\Big[1 + \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} h(\hat{E},E_{0})\Big],} \end{array} \quad (17)\] - -and \(\hat{E}\) and \(\hat{p}\) are defined in Eq. (2). - -Comparing Eqs. (16) and (17) and recalling that \(\hat{E} = E_{0} - K\): - -\[\begin{array}{r}{f_{\nu}(K,E_{0}) = f_{e}(\hat{E},E_{0})\Big[1 + \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} h(\hat{E},E_{0})\Big] / } \end{array} \begin{array}{r}{\left[1 + \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} g(\hat{E},E_{0})\right],} \end{array} \quad (18)\] - -or, neglecting terms of order \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha^{2})\): - -\[\begin{array}{r}{f_{\nu}(K,E_{0}) = f_{e}(\hat{E},E_{0})\Big[1 + \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} (h(\hat{E},E_{0}) - g(\hat{E},E_{0}))\Big].} \end{array} \quad (19)\] - -Using Eq. (11) and the exact expression for \(g(E,E_{0})\) (Eq. (20b) of Ref. [1]): - -\[\begin{array}{r}{h(\hat{E},E_{0}) - g(\hat{E},E_{0})}\\ {= \frac{13}{2} -\frac{4}{\hat{\beta}}\mathrm{Li}_{2}\Big(\frac{2\hat{\beta}}{1 + \hat{\beta}}\Big) + 4\Big(\frac{\tanh^{-1}\hat{\beta}}{\hat{\beta}} - 1\Big)}\\ {\times \Big[\frac{11}{6} +\ln \Big(\frac{2E_{0}}{m}\Big) + 2\ln \hat{\beta} +2\ln (1 - y) - \ln y - \frac{1}{3(1 - y)}\Big]}\\ {+\frac{\tanh^{-1}\hat{\beta}}{\hat{\beta}}\Big[\frac{3 - \hat{\beta}^{2}}{2} - 4\tanh^{-1}\hat{\beta} -\frac{y^{2}}{6(1 - y)^{2}}\Big],} \end{array} \quad (20)\] - -where \(\hat{\beta}\) is defined in Eq. (2) and \(y\equiv K / E_{0}\). - -Equations (19) and (20) describe the conversion from the \(e^{-}\) spectrum in a specific decay into the corresponding \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) spectrum when \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) RC are included. - -### Illustrative Example - -For \(E_{0} = 8\mathrm{MeV}\), using Eqs. (19) and (20), the RC \((\alpha/2\pi)[h(\hat{E},E_{0}) - g(\hat{E},E_{0})]\): - -- **Decreases** \(f_{\nu}(K,E_{0})\) by \(1.74\%\) at \(y = 0.8\) (\(K = 6.4\mathrm{MeV}\)) -- **Increases** \(f_{\nu}(K,E_{0})\) by \(1.77\%\) at \(y = 0.2\) (\(K = 1.6\mathrm{MeV}\)) - -Thus, the correction factor \([1 + (\alpha/2\pi)(h(\hat{E},E_{0}) - g(\hat{E},E_{0}))]\) in Eq. (19) is \(3.57\%\) larger at \(K = 1.6\mathrm{MeV}\) than at \(K = 6.4\mathrm{MeV}\). This behavior reflects the dominant contribution of \(-g(\hat{E},E_{0})\). As a consequence, the RC decreases (increases) \(f_{\nu}(K,E_{0})\) for high (low) \(K\), an effect that becomes sharper as \(E_{0}\) increases. - ---- - -## IV. CONCLUSIONS - -In summary, an analytic expression for the \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) RC to the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}(\nu_{e})\) spectrum in allowed \(\beta\) decay has been derived (Eqs. (9) and (11)). The \(m\rightarrow 0\) limit of this correction is convergent and leads to a very simple expression (Eq. (12)). This is in sharp contrast to the \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) RC to the \(e^{-}(e^{+})\) spectrum, which diverges as \(m\rightarrow 0\), an important difference that has been explained on theoretical grounds. These results have been applied to derive the \(\mathcal{O}(\alpha)\) RC to the conversion from the \(e^{-}\) spectrum to the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) spectrum (Eqs. (19) and (20)), a relation that plays an important role in reactor studies of neutrino oscillations [9-11]. A recent study concludes that the conversion procedure can be implemented with an error \(\lesssim 1\%\), provided some conditions are met [10]. If this accuracy is achieved, it is likely that the RC will play a significant role in precision studies of the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) spectrum. - ---- - -## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - -The author is indebted to W. J. Marciano for calling his attention to the conversion from the \(e^{-}\) spectrum to the \(\bar{\nu}_{e}\) spectrum, and for very useful observations, and to A. Ferroglia and G. Ossola for very interesting and helpful discussions. This work was supported in part by NSF Grant No. PHY-0758032. - ---- - -## References - -1. A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. 164, 1767 (1967). -2. A. Sirlin, Acta Physica Austriaca, Supplement V, edited by P. Urban, (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1968), p. 353-390. -3. T. Kinoshita and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. 113, 1652 (1959). -4. A. Sirlin, Rev. Mod. Phys. 50, 573 (1978); 50, 905(E) (1978). -5. A. Czarnecki, W. J. Marciano, and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. D 70, 093006 (2004). -6. W. J. Marciano and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 032002 (2006). -7. J. C. Hardy and I. S. Towner, Phys. Rev. C 79, 055502 (2009). -8. A. Czarnecki, W. J. Marciano, and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 99, 032003 (2007). -9. C. Bemporad, G. Gratta, and P. Vogel, Rev. Mod. Phys. 74, 297 (2002), and references cited therein. -10. P. Vogel, Phys. Rev. C 76, 025504 (2007), and references cited therein. -11. Th. A. Mueller et al., Phys. Rev. C 83, 054615 (2011), and references cited therein. -12. T. Kinoshita, J. Math. Phys. (N.Y.) 3, 650 (1962). -13. T. D. Lee and M. Nauenberg, Phys. Rev. 133, B1549 (1964). diff --git a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/2017_Hayen_analytical_beta_shape.md b/docs/refs/electromagnetic/2017_Hayen_analytical_beta_shape.md deleted file mode 100644 index dd789b2..0000000 --- a/docs/refs/electromagnetic/2017_Hayen_analytical_beta_shape.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1399 +0,0 @@ -# Hayen et al. (2017) — High Precision Analytical Description of the Allowed β Spectrum Shape: Summary of Chunks 1–6 - -## Title, Authors, Abstract - -**Title:** *High precision analytical description of the allowed β spectrum shape* - -**Authors:** Leendert Hayen and Nathal Severijns (KU Leuven, Belgium); Kazimierz Bodek and Dagmara Rozpedzik (Jagiellonian University, Poland); Xavier Mougeot (CEA LIST, France) - -**arXiv:** 1709.07530v2 [nucl-th], dated September 26, 2017 - -### Abstract Summary - -The paper presents a fully analytical description of the allowed beta decay spectrum shape for ongoing and planned measurements aimed at searching for physics beyond the Standard Electroweak Model (BSM) and investigating weak magnetism recoil terms. Contributions from finite size corrections, mass effects, and radiative corrections are reviewed. A particular focus is placed on **atomic and chemical effects**, extending the existing description analytically. The effects of QCD-induced recoil terms are discussed with cross-checks across different theoretical formalisms. Corrections are derived for both Fermi and Gamow-Teller transitions. Calculated $f$ values agree with the most precise numerical results within the aimed-for precision. The paper stresses the need for accurate evaluation of weak magnetism contributions and notes the possible significance of the oft-neglected induced pseudoscalar interaction. Together with improved atomic corrections, an analytical description is presented **accurate to a few parts in $10^{-4}$ down to 1 keV** for low-to-medium $Z$ nuclei — extending previous work by nearly an order of magnitude. - ---- - -## I. INTRODUCTION - -### Motivation: Beta Decay as a Probe for New Physics - -Beta decay played a pivotal role in uncovering the left-handed V-A weak interaction and the electroweak sector of the Standard Model (SM). In the LHC era, competitive BSM results are extracted from low-energy beta decay measurements through Effective Field Theories (EFT), where new physics at scale $\Lambda_{\text{BSM}} \gg \Lambda_{\text{LHC}}$ is parameterized. - -The **Lee-Yang Hamiltonian** is generalized to include higher-dimensional SM field operator combinations. Searches for non-V-A manifestations focus on: - -- Exotic scalar/tensor couplings (right-handed currents involving new heavy particles) -- Lorentz invariance violation via sidereal variations of observables - -### The Fierz Interference Term - -Scalar and tensor BSM coupling constants appear in the beta spectrum shape through the **Fierz interference term** (Jackson et al., 1957): - -$$b_{\text{Fierz}} \simeq \pm \frac{1}{1 + \rho^2} \left[ \text{Re}\left(\frac{C_S + C'_S}{C_V}\right) + \rho^2 \, \text{Re}\left(\frac{C_T + C'_T}{C_A}\right) \right], \tag{1}$$ - -where $\rho = \mathcal{M}_{GT} / \mathcal{M}_F$ is the ratio of Gamow-Teller to Fermi matrix elements, and $C_{V,A}$ are SM vector/axial-vector coupling constants while $C_S, C_T$ are possible scalar/tensor couplings. For pure transitions: - -$$b_{\text{Fierz},F} \simeq \pm \text{Re}\left(\frac{C_S + C'_S}{C_V}\right), \tag{2a}$$ -$$b_{\text{Fierz},GT} \simeq \pm \text{Re}\left(\frac{C_T + C'_T}{C_A}\right). \tag{2b}$$ - -A precision of typically **0.5%** is required when determining $b_{\text{Fierz}}$ to improve limits on scalar/tensor coupling constants. - -### Weak Magnetism and Spectral Shape Modification - -QCD-induced form factors — dominated by the **weak magnetism term** $b_{wm}$ — must be included as experimental precision increases, since they otherwise limit BSM sensitivity: - -$$N(W)\,dW \propto pW(W_0 - W)^2 \left[ 1 + \frac{\gamma m_e}{W} b_{\text{Fierz}} \pm \frac{4W}{3M} b_{wm} \right] dW, \tag{3}$$ - -where: - -- $p$, $W$, $W_0$ are the beta particle momentum, total energy, and endpoint energy respectively -- $\gamma = \sqrt{1 - (\alpha Z)^2}$ with $\alpha$ the fine structure constant and $Z$ the daughter atomic number -- $m_e$ is the electron rest mass and $M$ is the average mother/daughter nucleus mass - -To search for new physics or establish weak magnetism effects, a beta spectrum description reliable at the **$10^{-4}$ level** is required. - -### Previous Theoretical Approaches - -Three major formalisms are reviewed: - -1. **Behrens-Bühring** (and collaborators) — rigorous but relies on numerical solutions of the Dirac equation -2. **Holstein** — analytical approach with clean notation -3. **Wilkinson** — analytical parametrizations of dominant effects - -The paper's goal is to combine the computational accuracy of Behrens-Bühring with the transparency of Holstein, achieving $10^{-4}$ precision analytically. - -### Atomic and Chemical Effects (New Contributions) - -Special attention improves the analytical description of: - -- **Screening effects** — combining Bühring's theoretical work with high-precision atomic potentials for all $Z$ values; an analytical fit is proposed -- **Atomic exchange effect** — based on state-of-the-art numerical calculations, its contribution can exceed 20% in low-energy regions for higher $Z$ -- **Shake-up and shake-off processes** — reviewed for their influence on atomic effects -- **Molecular effects** — explored for the first time at this precision level - ---- - -## II. COMPLETE EXPRESSION - -The fully differential allowed beta spectrum shape, including all corrections needed for $10^{-4}$ precision, is: - -$$N(W)\,dW = \frac{G_V^2 V_{ud}^2}{2\pi^3} F_0(Z,W) L_0(Z,W) U(Z,W) DFS(Z,W,\beta^2) R(W,W_0) R_N(W,W_0,M)$$ -$$\times Q(Z,W) S(Z,W) X(Z,W) r(Z,W) C(Z,W) D_C(Z,W,\beta^2) \, pW(W_0 - W)^2 dW \tag{4}$$ - -$$\equiv \frac{G_V^2 V_{ud}^2}{2\pi^3} K(Z,W,W_0,M) \, A(Z,W) \, C'(Z,W) \, pW(W_0-W)^2 dW.$$ - -### Definitions of All Factors - -| Symbol | Name | Description | -|---|---|---| -| $F_0(Z,W)$ | Point charge Fermi function | Coulomb interaction between beta particle and daughter nucleus (Eq. 6) | -| $L_0(Z,W)$ | Electrostatic finite size correction | Corrections to Fermi function when evaluating at origin for uniform sphere | -| $U(Z,W)$ | More realistic charge distribution correction | Difference between actual nuclear shape and uniform sphere | -| $DFS(Z,W,\beta^2)$ | Deformation correction | Effect of axially symmetric nuclear deformation on the Fermi function | -| $R(W,W_0)$ | Outer radiative corrections | QED corrections (Sec. V) | -| $R_N(W,W_0,M)$ | Finite nuclear mass recoil correction | Kinematic effects from finite nucleus mass (Sec. IV.B.1) | -| $Q(Z,W,M)$ | Recoil electromagnetic correction | Coulomb field modification due to nuclear recoil (Sec. IV.B.2) | -| $S(Z,W)$ | Screening correction | Atomic electron screening effects (Sec. VII.A) | -| $X(Z,W)$ | Atomic exchange effect | Electron exchange with atomic orbitals (Sec. VII.B) | -| $r(Z,W)$ | Atomic mismatch / overlap | Alternative atomic excitation correction (Sec. VII.D) | -| $A(Z,W)$ | Combined atomic factors | $S \cdot X \cdot r$ | -| $C(Z,W)$ | Nuclear structure sensitive correction | Contains all nuclear form factors and matrix elements (Sec. VI) | -| $D_C(Z,W,\beta^2)$ | Nuclear deformation correction | Nuclear shape effects in the convolution terms (Sec. VI.F) | - -### Key Conventions - -- **Natural units**: $c = \hbar = m_e = 1$ throughout all formulae -- **Z convention**: $Z$ is always positive; $\beta^-$ and $\beta^+$ are distinguished explicitly via upper/lower signs ($\mp$) -- $W = E/m_ec^2 + 1$ (total beta energy in units of electron rest mass) -- $p = \sqrt{W^2 - 1}$ (momentum in units of $m_ec$) -- $G_V$: vector coupling strength in nuclei; $V_{ud} = \cos^2\theta_C$ - -### Terminology Clarification: "Finite Size Effects" - -The authors distinguish two types that different authors conflate under "finite size": - -1. **Electrostatic finite size** ($L_0, U, DFS$): Stems from the electric potential difference when moving from point charge to realistic nuclear shape. These are corrections applied *after* evaluating the electron wave function at the origin. - -2. **Convolution finite size**: Results from integrating leptonic wave functions over the nuclear volume. This is sensitive to nuclear structure and appears in $C(Z,W)$. The authors note that different communities use "finite size" to refer to entirely different corrections, and aim to clarify this distinction. - ---- - -## III. FERMI FUNCTION - -### The Point Charge Fermi Function - -The transition matrix element (to first order in the weak Hamiltonian with all-order Coulomb interactions resummed) is: - -$$\mathcal{M}_{fi} = -2\pi i \delta(E_f - E_i) \langle f | T \exp\left(-i\int_0^\infty dt H_Z(t)\right) $$ -$$\times H_\beta(0) T \exp\left(-i\int_{-\infty}^0 dt H_{Z'}(t)\right) | i \rangle, \tag{5}$$ - -The typical approximation is to keep only the final-state Coulomb interaction (daughter nucleus charge $Z$), with corrections for radiative effects and atomic influences. - -**Fermi's point charge Fermi function** (Eq. 6): - -$$F_0(Z,W) = 4(2pR)^{2(\gamma-1)} e^{\pi y} \frac{|\Gamma(\gamma + iy)|^2}{(\Gamma(1+2\gamma))^2}, \tag{6}$$ - -with: -$$\gamma = \sqrt{1 - (\alpha Z)^2}, \quad y = \pm \alpha Z W / p. \tag{7}$$ - -Here $R$ is the cutoff radius (representing daughter nucleus radius) necessitated by divergence at origin for point charge, though it has no real physical significance — most of its dependence is absorbed into corrections. - -### Alternative Fermi Function Definitions - -The paper reviews multiple conventions: - -- **Wilkinson / Blatt & Weisskopf / Fano / Konopinski style**: Uses prefactor $(1+\gamma)/2$ instead of 4, absorbing it into $L_0$. -- **Behrens-Bühring / Schopper style** (followed by this paper): Keeps Eq. (6) with factor 4, and includes all additional corrections in $L_0$ and subsequent factors. - -### Finite Size Correction from Power Expansion - -Expanding the radial Dirac wave functions near the origin: - -$$\left\{\frac{f_\kappa(r)}{g_\kappa(r)}\right\} = \alpha_\kappa \{(2|\kappa|-1)!!\}^{-1}(pr)^{|\kappa|-1} \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{a_{\kappa n}}{b_{\kappa n}} r^n, \tag{12}$$ - -the Coulomb information is encoded in **Coulomb amplitudes** $\alpha_\kappa$. The dominant electron component at the origin becomes: - -$$F_0 L_0 = \frac{\alpha_{-1} + \alpha_1^2}{2p^2}. \tag{13}$$ - -This is valid regardless of nuclear charge distribution shape. - -### Behrens-Jänecke Finite Size Correction - -An alternative Fermi function that includes finite size: - -$$F_{BJ}(Z,W) = F_0(Z,W)\left[1 \mp \frac{\alpha Z W R}{15} + ...\right], \tag{10}$$ - -The additional term traces to the expansion of $f_1$ and $g_{-1}$ inside the nucleus (Huffaker and Laird, 1967): - -$$\left\{\frac{g_{-1}(r)}{f_1(r)}\right\}^2 \propto [p F_0(Z,W)]^{1/2}\left[1 - \frac{13}{30}\left(\frac{1}{2R}\right)^2 + \alpha Z W R - (pr)^2\right], \tag{11}$$ - -interpreted as a rough electrostatic finite size correction. The error from neglecting the $(1+\gamma)/2$ prefactor is $\sim 0.5\%$ for $Z=20$. - ---- - -## IV. FINITE MASS AND ELECTROSTATIC FINITE SIZE EFFECTS - -### A. Electrostatic Finite Nuclear Size Corrections - -#### 1. L₀(Z, W) — Uniformly Charged Sphere - -When the nucleus has finite size rather than being a point charge, electron/positron wave functions become finite at the center. The correction $L_0$ is introduced for use with the analytical Fermi function in Eq. (6). - -The nuclear radius is adjusted to match experimental $\langle r^2 \rangle^{1/2}$: - -$$R = \sqrt{5/3} \, \langle r^2 \rangle^{1/2}. \tag{14}$$ - -**Low-Z expansion** (Behrens and Bühring): - -$$L_0 \simeq \frac{1+\gamma}{2}\left[1 \mp \alpha Z W R + (\alpha Z)^2 - \gamma \frac{\alpha Z R}{2W}\right] $$ -$$\simeq 1 \mp \alpha Z W R + (\alpha Z)^2 - \frac{13}{60} - \frac{\alpha Z R}{2W}. \tag{15}$$ - -**Wilkinson's analytical parametrization** (accurate to $10^{-4}$ for $p \leq 45$, $|Z| \leq 60$): - -$$L_0(Z,W) = 1 + \frac{13}{60}(\alpha Z)^2 \mp \frac{\alpha Z W R(41 - 26\gamma)}{[15(2\gamma-1)]} $$ -$$\mp \frac{\alpha Z R \gamma(17 - 2\gamma)}{[30W(2\gamma-1)]} + \frac{R}{W}\sum_{n=0}^5 a_n (WR)^n + 0.41(R-0.0164)(\alpha Z)^{4.5}, \tag{16}$$ - -with coefficients expanded as: -$$a_n = \sum_{x=1}^6 b_{x,n} (\alpha Z)^x. \tag{17}$$ - -Coefficients $b_{x,n}$ are tabulated in **Tables I (electrons)** and **II (positrons)**. For positrons, signs of odd powers of $Z$ are flipped. The effect ranges from a few 0.1% up to several percent — everywhere highly significant. - -#### 2. U(Z, W) — More Realistic Charge Distributions - -The uniformly charged sphere is an approximation; actual nuclear charge distributions include: - -- **Modified Gaussian**: $\rho_{MG}(r) = N_0\left[1 + A\left(\frac{r}{a}\right)^2\right]e^{-(r/a)^2}$ (Eq. 18), with normalization $N_0 = \frac{8 a^{-3} \pi^{-1/2}}{2+3A}$ and $a = R\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}(2+5A)/(2+3A)}$ (Eqs. 19–20) -- **Fermi distribution**: $\rho_F(r) \propto \left[1 + \exp((r-c)/a)\right]^{-1}$ with $a \simeq 0.55$ fm - -The correction from replacing uniform sphere with a more realistic distribution is: - -$$\frac{U(Z,W)}{L_0} = \frac{\alpha_{02}' + \alpha_{-1}'^2}{\alpha_{1}^2 + \alpha_{-1}^2} = \frac{B_{10^{-2}}' + B_{-1}'^2}{B_{1^{-2}} + B_{-1}^2}, \tag{23}$$ - -neglecting $\mathcal{O}(WR^2)$ terms, where $B_{\pm 1}$ involves wave functions inside the nucleus (Eq. 24). - -**Analytical approximation for low Z** (Eq. 25): -$$U(Z,W) \approx 1 + \alpha Z W R \Delta_1 + \frac{\gamma}{W} \alpha Z R \Delta_2 + (\alpha Z)^2 \Delta_3 - (WR)^2 \Delta_4, \tag{25}$$ - -where $\Delta_i$ are linear combinations of potential coefficient differences $\Delta v_n = v_n^0 - v_n'$ (Eqs. 26a–d). - -**Wilkinson's Fermi distribution fit**: -$$U(Z,W) = 1 + \sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n p^n, \tag{29}$$ -with coefficients: -$$a_0 = -5.6\times 10^{-5} \mp 4.94\times 10^{-5} Z + 6.23\times 10^{-8} Z^2,$$ -$$a_1 = 5.17\times 10^{-6} \pm 2.517\times 10^{-6} Z + 2.00\times 10^{-8} Z^2,$$ -$$a_2 = -9.17\times 10^{-8} \pm 5.53\times 10^{-9} Z + 1.25\times 10^{-10} Z^2, \tag{30}$$ - -The effect of $U(Z,W)$ is $\sim 0.1\%$ for medium-high masses — cannot be neglected. The three-parameter Fermi ("wine bottle") distribution can use Eq. (29) as first approximation with Eq. (25) describing differences between two Fermi distributions. - -#### 3. DFS(Z, W, β²) — Nuclear Deformation - -For axially symmetric deformations: -$$R(\theta,\phi) = R_0\left[1 + \beta_2 Y_{20}(\theta,\phi)\right], \tag{32}$$ - -with $\beta_2 > 0$ prolate, $\beta_2 < 0$ oblate. The intrinsic electric quadrupole moment: -$$Q_0 = \frac{\alpha}{\pi}\sqrt{\frac{5}{3}} R Z \beta_2(1 + 0.16\beta_2). \tag{33}$$ - -The deformation correction to the Fermi function is defined as a ratio of angle-averaged corrections: -$$DFS(Z,W,\beta) = \frac{L_0^*(Z,W)}{L_0(Z,W)}, \tag{40}$$ - -where $L_0^*$ involves integrating over a continuous superposition of uniformly charged spheres (Eq. 39). The effect can reach several parts in $10^3$ but is partially canceled by the nuclear structure deformation correction $D_C$. **Figure 1** shows DFS for $\beta_2 = 0.2$, revealing an energy dependence reversal between $\beta^-$ and $\beta^+$ decay. - -### B. Finite Nuclear Mass Corrections - -#### 1. Rₙ(W, W₀, M) — Recoil Kinematic Correction - -The finite nuclear mass turns beta decay from two-body to three-body process: -$$R_N(W,W_0,M) = 1 + r_0 + r_1/W + r_2 W + r_3/W^2. \tag{41}$$ - -**For Fermi (vector) transitions**: -$$r_0^V = W_0^2/(2M^2) - 11/(6M^2), \tag{42a}$$ -$$r_1^V = W_0/(3M), \tag{42b}$$ -$$r_2^V = 2/M - 4W_0^2/(3M), \tag{42c}$$ -$$r_3^V = 16/(3M^2). \tag{42d}$$ - -**For Gamow-Teller (axial) transitions**: -$$r_0^A = -2W_0/(3M) - W_0^2/(6M^2) - 77/(18M^2), \tag{43a}$$ -$$r_1^A = -2/(3M) + 7W_0/(9M^2), \tag{43b}$$ -$$r_2^A = 10/(3M) - 28W_0/(9M^2), \tag{43c}$$ -$$r_3^A = 88/(9M^2). \tag{43d}$$ - -For mixed transitions, terms are weighted by $1/(1+\rho^2)$ and $1/(1+\rho^{-2})$ (Eq. 44). This is a small effect of order $10^{-5}$ to $10^{-3}$. See Wilkinson (1990) Fig. 1 for magnitude plot. - -#### 2. Q(Z, W, M) — Recoil Electromagnetic Correction - -The recoiling nucleus's Coulomb field differs from a static one: -$$Q(Z,W,M) \simeq 1 \mp \frac{\pi \alpha Z}{M}\left(1 + a\right)\frac{W_0 - W}{3W}, \tag{45}$$ - -where $a = (1-\rho^2/3)/(1+\rho^2)$ is the $\beta$-$\nu$ correlation coefficient ($a=1$ for Fermi, $a=-1/3$ for Gamow-Teller). The effect amounts to at most a few percent of the typical error in phase space factor $f$ due to Q-value uncertainty — typically negligible. - ---- - -## V. RADIATIVE CORRECTIONS - -### Overview: Inner vs. Outer Corrections - -The radiatively corrected spectrum is: -$$\frac{d\Gamma}{dW} = \frac{d\Gamma_0}{dW}(1 + \Delta_R^{V/A})(1 + \delta_R(W,W_0)) \tag{46}$$ - -- **Inner corrections** $\Delta_R$: Nuclear-independent, absorbed into effective coupling constants. For vector case: $\Delta_V^R = (2.361 \pm 0.038)\%$ (Marciano and Sirlin, 2006). -- **Outer corrections** $\delta_R(W,W_0)$: Energy-dependent, nucleus-dependent — the focus of this section, contributing a few percent. - -### A. Total Spectral Influence (Outer Radiative Corrections) - -$$R(W,W_0) = 1 + \delta_R(W,W_0). \tag{47}$$ - -The correction is expressed as: -$$\delta_R = \frac{\alpha}{2\pi}\left[g(W_0,W) - 3\ln\left(\frac{m_p}{2W_0}\right)\right] + Z\alpha^2\sum_i \Delta_i(W) + Z^2\alpha^3 \delta_{3h} + ..., \tag{48}$$ - -where: - -- $L(2W_0, m_p) = 1.026725\left[1 - \frac{2\alpha}{3\pi}\ln(2W_0)\right]$ (Eq. 49) — included in the constant term normalization - -#### Order α Correction — Sirlin's g(W₀, W) Function - -$$g(W_0,W) = 3\ln(m_p) - \frac{3}{4} + \frac{4\beta}{1+\beta}\left[4\tanh^{-1}\beta - 1\right] $$ -$$+ \frac{W_0-W}{\beta}\left(-\frac{3}{3W} + \ln[2(W_0-W)]\right) $$ -$$- \frac{(W_0-W)^2}{6W^2} + 4\frac{\tanh^{-1}\beta}{\beta}\cdot 2(1+\beta^2) - \frac{(W_0-W)^2}{6W^2} - 4\tanh^{-1}\beta, \tag{50}$$ - -where $\beta = p/W$ and: -$$L_s(x) = \int_0^x \frac{\ln(1-t)}{t} dt = -\sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{x^k}{k^2} \equiv -Li_2(x), \tag{51}$$ - -the **Spence function (dilogarithm)**. Its large $W_0$ limit: -$$g(W_0 \to \infty, W) = 3\ln\left(\frac{M_N}{2W_0}\right) + \frac{81}{10} - \frac{4\pi^2}{3}. \tag{52}$$ - -Equation (50) is universal — same for electrons and positrons, Fermi and Gamow-Teller, independent of nucleus. It has a **logarithmic divergence at $W = W_0$** related to soft real photon emission. - -#### Soft Photon Resummation - -To handle the endpoint divergence, Eq. (53) is used: -$$t(\beta)\ln(W_0 - W) \to (W_0-W)^{t(\beta)} - 1, \tag{53}$$ -where: -$$t(\beta) = \frac{2\alpha}{\pi}\left[\frac{\tanh^{-1}\beta}{\beta} - 1\right]. \tag{54}$$ - -The change in tritium spectrum is negligible due to low endpoint, but for higher energies the $f t$ value shift can reach several parts in $10^4$. - -#### Order Zα² Correction - -Three dominant Feynman diagrams (Fig. 3): vacuum polarization of bremsstrahlung photon and two electron propagator renormalizations. The axial vector component contributes specifically to $\Delta_3$. - -$$\delta_2(Z,W) = Z\alpha^2 \sum_{i=1}^4 \Delta_i(W). \tag{55}$$ - -The leading terms $\Delta_1$ depend on nuclear form factor $F(q^2)$ and are split into nucleus-independent ($\Delta_1^0$) and nucleus-dependent ($\Delta_1^F$) parts: - -- Non-relativistic approximation (Eq. 56): energy-dependent but nucleus-independent terms combined with $\Delta_4$ -- For uniformly charged sphere, Eqs. (57)–(62) give explicit integral forms for $\Delta_1^F$, $\Delta_2$, and $\Delta_3$ - -For modified Gaussian model results are similar; differences between models for superallowed Fermi transitions ($^{10}$O to $^{54}$Co) are $< 10^{-4}$. - -#### Order Z²α³ Correction — Sirlin's Heuristic Formula - -$$\delta_{3h} = Z^2\alpha^3 \left[a\ln\left(\frac{\Lambda}{W}\right) + bf(W) + \frac{4\pi}{3}g(W) - 0.649\ln(2W_0)\right], \tag{63}$$ - -with $a = \frac{\pi}{3} - \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}$ (Eq. 64), $b = \frac{4}{3\pi^4}(\pi^2 - \gamma_E) - \frac{\pi^2}{18}$ (Eq. 65), $f(W) = \ln(2W)-5/6$ (Eq. 66), $g(W)$ in Eq. (67). - -#### Higher Order Corrections — Wilkinson Estimate - -$$\delta_{Z^n\alpha^{n+1}} \approx Z^n\alpha^{n+1} K_{nm} \ln^{m-n}\left(\frac{\Lambda}{W}\right), \tag{68}$$ - -with $K_{nm} \approx 0.5$ on average, giving summed contribution: -$$\delta^{\text{higher}} = \sum_{n=3}^\infty Z^n\alpha^{n+1} = \frac{Z^3\alpha^4}{1-Z\alpha}. \tag{69}$$ - -These become relevant for higher $Z$. - ---- - -## B. Neutrino Radiative Corrections - -Even though the neutrino has no direct electromagnetic interaction, it is indirectly influenced via virtual photon exchange and energy conservation from inner bremsstrahlung (relevant for reactor neutrino oscillation studies). The total $\mathcal{O}(\alpha)$ radiative correction to the antineutrino spectrum: - -$$R_\nu(Z,W,W_0) = 1 + \frac{\alpha}{2\pi}\left[3\ln\left(\frac{m_p}{m_e}\right) + \frac{23}{4} - Li_2\left(-\frac{8}{\hat{\beta}}\right)\right.$$ -$$+ 8\left(\frac{2\hat{W}\hat{\beta}}{\hat{\beta}-1}\right)^{-1} + 4\frac{\tanh^{-1}\hat{\beta}}{\hat{\beta}}\frac{7+3\hat{\beta}^2}{8} - 2\tanh^{-1}\hat{\beta}) \tag{70}$$ - -where $\hat{W} = W_0 - W_\nu$, $\hat{p} = \sqrt{\hat{W}^2 - m_e^2}$, $\hat{\beta} = \hat{p}/\hat{W}$ (Eq. 71). The correction is much smaller than for the electron spectrum. - ---- - -## C. Radiative Beta Decay — Internal Bremsstrahlung - -An additional photon in the final state: -$$n \to p + e^- + \bar{\nu}_e + \gamma, \tag{72}$$ - -Understood classically as radiation from sudden beta particle acceleration (Bloch 1936; Knipp and Uhlenbeck). The photon ejection probability per unit energy: - -$$\Phi(W,\omega) = \frac{\alpha p}{\pi\omega p'}\left[\frac{W+W'^2}{p^2}\ln\left(\frac{W+p}{W'-p}\right) - 2\right], \tag{73}$$ - -with $W' = W_0-\omega$ and $p'=\sqrt{W'^2-1}$ the redefined energy/momentum. The photon spectrum affecting the beta spectrum is found by averaging over intermediate states (Eq. 74): -$$S(\omega) = \int_{1+\omega}^{W_0} N(W')\Phi(W',\omega)dW'.$$ - -Detection of internal bremsstrahlung reveals underlying weak interaction physics through correlations with lepton momenta and circular polarization. Experimental branching ratios: $BR_{\beta\gamma} \sim 3\times 10^{-3}$ for neutron, $\sim 2\times 10^{-3}$ for $^{32}$P. - ---- - -## VI. NUCLEAR STRUCTURE EFFECTS — THE SHAPE FACTOR (Partial) - -### Form Factors and Multipole Expansion - -Nuclear structure effects are described via the elementary particle approach with form factors $F_K$ absorbing all nuclear structure information as functions of $q^2 = (p_f - p_i)^2$: - -$$\langle f | V_\mu - A_\mu | i \rangle \propto \sum_{KMs} \sum_{L=K-1} (-1)^{J_f-M_f+M} (-i)^L F_{KLs}(q^2) $$ -$$\times \sqrt{4\pi(2J_i+1)} \begin{pmatrix} J_f & K & J_i \\ -M_f & M & M_i \end{pmatrix} \frac{(qR)^L}{(2L+1)!!}. \tag{78}$$ - -Since $(qR)^2$ is very small for beta decay, the expansion typically stops after the first order. The formalism connects to both Behrens-Bühring and Holstein approaches, utilizing Behrens-Bühring's computational machinery with Holstein's clean notation. - ---- - -# Hayen et al. (2017) — High Precision Analytical Description of the Allowed β Spectrum Shape: Summary of Chunks 7 (Section VI.A–C) - -## A. Introduction to Nuclear Structure Effects - -### The Beta Decay Hamiltonian and Current Decomposition - -The beta decay Hamiltonian is constructed as a current-current interaction: - -$$H_\beta(x) = \frac{G_V \cos\theta_C}{\sqrt{2}} [J^\mu(x)L_\mu(x) + \text{h.c.}], \tag{75}$$ - -where $\theta_C$ is the Cabibbo angle, $J^\mu(x)$ is the nuclear current, and $L^\mu(x)$ is the lepton current: - -$$L^\mu(x) = i\bar{\varphi}_e(x)\gamma^\mu(1+\gamma^5)v_\nu(x). \tag{77}$$ - -Here $\varphi_e$ is the solution of the beta particle wave function in a Coulomb potential. The strong interaction requires generalizing the nuclear current from pure V-A: - -$$J^{\mu\dagger}(x) = \langle f | V^\mu(x) + A^\mu(x) | i \rangle, \tag{76}$$ - -The transition matrix element (TME) is constrained by angular momentum coupling rules for $J_i^{\pi_i} \to J_f^{\pi_f}$ transitions, allowing decays of different multipole orders $K$ within the vector triangle $(J_i, J_f, K)$. The general shape factor formulation groups all non-phase-space/non-Fermi-function terms into: - -$$N(W)\,dW \propto pW(W_0-W)^2 F(Z,W) C(Z,W). \tag{79}$$ - -**Key distinction:** $C(Z,W)$ encompasses two distinct effects: - -1. **Spatial variation** of leptonic and nuclear wave functions inside the finite nuclear volume -2. **Raw nuclear structure** (form factors, matrix elements) - -All corrections from previous sections (electrostatic finite size, radiative corrections, etc.) are *not* included in $C(Z,W)$ — they are treated as separate higher-order corrections. - -### Two Formalisms Compared: Behrens-Bühring vs. Holstein - -The paper discusses two major approaches to nuclear structure effects: - -- **Behrens-Bühring (BB):** Couples leptonic and nuclear parts together; provides the most precise results through rigorous expansion in $r^2$, $(m_eR)^a$, $(WR)^b$, $(\alpha Z)^c$ introducing tabulated functions $I(k_e, m, n, \rho)$ -- **Holstein (HS):** Decouples leptonic and nuclear parts; uses manifestly covariant form factors with cleaner symmetry properties - -The authors adopt the BB computational approach but present final results in Holstein notation for clarity. See Appendix E for detailed comparison. - ---- - -## B. Form Factors - -### 1. Impulse Approximation - -Form factors $F_{KLs}(q^2)$ describe nuclear structure model-independently as functions of the only Lorentz invariant $q^2 = (p_f - p_i)^2$. Using the **impulse approximation**, nucleons are treated as non-interacting particles coupling to the weak vertex as free particles: - -$$O_{KLs} = \sum_{\alpha,\beta} \langle \alpha | O_{KLs} | \beta \rangle a^\dagger_\alpha a_\beta, \tag{80}$$ - -with nuclear matrix elements decomposing into: - -$$\langle f | O_{KLs} | i \rangle = \sum_{\alpha,\beta} \langle \alpha | O_{KLs} | \beta \rangle \langle f | a^\dagger_\alpha a_\beta | i \rangle. \tag{81}$$ - -The one-body density matrix elements $\langle f | a^\dagger_\alpha a_\beta | i \rangle$ are calculable via shell model methods. - -### 2. Induced Currents - -QCD influences from within the nuclear potential add Lorentz-invariant terms to the weak vertex. In both BB and HS formalisms (completely equivalent): - -**Behrens-Bühring form:** -$$J_\mu^{BB} = i\langle \bar{u}_p | C_V\gamma_\mu - f_M\sigma_{\mu\nu}q^\nu + if_S q_\mu $$ -$$- \frac{C_A}{C_V}\left(\gamma_\mu\gamma^5 - f_T\sigma_{\mu\nu}\gamma^5 q^\nu\right) + i\frac{f_P}{C_V}\gamma^5 q_\mu | u_n \rangle, \tag{82}$$ - -**Holstein form:** -$$J_\mu^{HS} = i\langle \bar{u}_p | g_V\gamma_\mu - \frac{g_M-g_V}{2M}\sigma_{\mu\nu}q^\nu + i\frac{g_S}{2M}q_\mu $$ -$$+ g_A\gamma^5\gamma_\mu - \frac{g_{II}}{2M}\sigma_{\mu\nu}\gamma^5 q^\nu + i\frac{g_P}{2M}\gamma^5 q_\mu | u_n \rangle, \tag{83}$$ - -where $\sigma_{\mu\nu} = -\frac{i}{2}[\gamma_\mu,\gamma_\nu]$ and all $C,g$ functions depend on $q^2$. The two approaches are equivalent through redefinition of form factors. - -**Example — induced scalar modification (Eq. 84):** -$$^{(0)}_{F000} \to {}^{VM}_{000} \pm \frac{f_S}{R}\frac{6}{5}(W_0 R \pm \alpha Z)\,{}^{VM}_{000}, \tag{84}$$ - -### Table III: Nuclear Matrix Elements for Allowed Transitions - -| Form Factor (BB) | Cartesian Form | $\Delta J$ | Forbidden | Type | -|---|---|---|---|---| -| $V_{F000}^{(0)}$ | $+g_V \mathbf{1}$ | 0 | — | **Allowed** | -| $A_{F101}^{(0)}$ | $\mp g_A \boldsymbol{\sigma}$ | 0,1 | $0^- \to 0^-$ | **Allowed** | -| $V_{F000}^{(1)}$ | $+g_V (\mathbf{r}/R)^2$ | 0 | — | Main correction | -| $A_{F101}^{(1)}$ | $\mp g_A \frac{\mathbf{r}}{R}\left(\frac{R}{\sqrt{2(M_N R)^2}} + \boldsymbol{\sigma}\right)$ | 0,1 | $0^- \to 0^-$ | Main correction | -| $A_{F121}^{(0)}$ | $\mp g_A\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}\frac{\sqrt{5}}{R^2}[\sqrt{4\pi}\mathbf{Y}_2(\hat{\mathbf{r}})\otimes\boldsymbol{\sigma}]_1 \pm (2M_N R)^{-2}$ | 0,1 | $0^- \to 0^-$ | — | -| $V_{F011}^{(0)}$ | $+g_V i\frac{\mathbf{r}}{R}$ | 0 | — | **Relativistic** | -| $V_{F111}^{(0)}$ | $-g_V\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}\boldsymbol{\alpha}\times\frac{\mathbf{r}}{R} - \sqrt{\frac{M_N}{2}}\frac{g_2^M}{NR}$ | 0,1 | $0^- \to 0^-$ | **Relativistic** | -| $A_{F110}^{(0)}$ | $\pm g_A\sqrt{3}\gamma^5\frac{\mathbf{r}}{R} \pm (2M_N R)^{-2}W_0 R [\cdots] \pm \frac{g_P}{\sqrt{56}}\alpha Z$ | 0,1 | $0^- \to 0^-$ | **Relativistic** | - -### Table IV: Holstein Form Factors in Impulse Approximation - -| Form Factor | Formula (Impulse Approx.) | Remark | Type | -|---|---|---|---| -| $a$ | $\sim g_V M_F$ | $g_V = 1$ (CVC, Ademollo-Gatto) | Vector | -| $e$ | $\approx g_V(M_F \pm A g_S)$ | $e=0$ (CVC, SCC) | Vector | -| $b$ | $\approx b = A(g_M M_{GT} + g_V M_L)$ | $g_M \approx 4.706$ | Vector | -| $c_1$ | $\approx c_1 = g_A M_h^{GT}$ | $g_A \to g_{A,\text{eff}} = 1$ (Towner, 1987) | Axial vector | -| $c_2$ | $\approx \frac{i}{6}g_A M_{\sigma r^2} + \frac{\sqrt{1}}{10}M_{ky}$ | $c_2 \sim R^2$ | Axial vector | -| $d$ | $\approx d = A(g_A M_{\sigma L} \pm g_{II} M_{GT})$ | $g_{II} \sim g_T \approx 0$ (SCC); $d_I=0$ for analog states | Axial vector | -| $h$ | $\approx -\sqrt{\frac{2}{10}}M_2^2 g_A M_{1y} - A^2 g_P M_{GT}$ | $g_{P,\text{free}} \approx -229 \to g_{P,\text{eff}} = ?$ | Axial vector | - -### Table V: Nuclear Matrix Elements (Calaprice et al., 1977b) - -| Matrix Element | Operator Form | -|---|---| -| $M_F$ | $\langle\beta\|\sum\tau_i^\pm\| \alpha_i\rangle$ | -| $M_{GT}$ | $\langle\beta\|\sum\tau_i^\pm \vec{\sigma}_i\| \alpha_i\rangle$ | -| $M_L$ | $\langle\beta\|\sum\tau_i^\pm \vec{l}_i\times\vec{\sigma}_i\| \alpha_i\rangle$ | -| $M_{\sigma r^2}$ | $\langle\beta\|\sum\tau_i^\pm \vec{\sigma}_i r_i^2\| \alpha_i\rangle$ | -| $M_{ky}^{(0)}$ | $\frac{1}{6}\sqrt{\frac{4\pi}{5}}\langle\beta\|\sum\tau_i^\pm r_i^2 C_1^{(0)}Y_{2n}(\hat{\mathbf{r}}_i)\| \alpha_i\rangle$ | - -### 3. Validity of the Impulse Approximation - -The impulse approximation neglects many-body effects (meson exchange, core polarization). Key findings: - -- **Vector matrix element $V_{F000}$:** The impulse approximation is valid because the vector current is conserved (CVC) -- **Axial current:** Breakdown occurs due to PCAC and pion field coupling — corrections are significant - -**Two categories of nuclear structure corrections:** - -1. **Meson exchange effects** — long history (Blin-Stoyle et al., Chemtob & Rho, Delorme & Rho) -2. **"Nuclear" effects** — core polarization, relativistic effects, configuration mixing from insufficient wave function knowledge - -These distinctions are artificial since the nuclear potential incorporates mesonic degrees of freedom (Wilkinson, 1974). For **allowed decays**, impulse approximation results largely hold due to cancellations between core-polarization and meson exchange (Morita, 1985), though individual effects can reach ~40%. - -**Quenching of coupling constants:** - -- $g_A$ is renormalized ad hoc: $g_{A,\text{eff}} = 1.1$ for sd-shell nuclei, unity for fp-shell (Martínez-Pinedo et al., 1996), and even $g_A \approx 0.9$ from highly forbidden decays -- The **induced pseudoscalar coupling** $g_P$ can be quenched by up to **80%** in nuclear matter — significantly more than the connected quenching of $g_A$ -- Ab initio methods (Green's function Monte Carlo) circumvent quenching but fall outside scope - ---- - -## C. Symmetries - -### 1. Conserved Vector Current (CVC) - -The CVC hypothesis (Feynman and Gell-Mann, 1958) provides powerful constraints: - -**Temporal component:** -$$\langle J_f M_f | V^0(0) | J_i M_i \rangle = {}^{V}F_{000}(q^2)\delta_{J_i J_f}\delta_{M_i M_f} $$ -$$= \sqrt{(T_i \pm T_{3i})(T_i \mp T_{3i} + 1)}\,\delta_{J_i J_f}\delta_{M_i M_f}, \tag{87-88}$$ - -This implies CVC **excludes induced scalar currents** ($e=0$ in Table IV). - -**Relation between vector form factors (Eq. 89):** -$$-2N\,{}^{V}F_{011}^{N-1} = \left(W_0 \mp (m_n - m_p)\right)R\,{}^{V}F_{000}^N $$ -$$\pm \alpha Z \int_R \!\! \left(\frac{r}{R}\right)^{2N} U(r)Y_0\,d\tau.$$ - -**Weak magnetism from electromagnetic data:** For mirror transitions between isospin $T=1/2$ nuclei: - -$$b = A\sqrt{\frac{J+1}{J}}\,\mu_{\text{eff}}, \tag{90}$$ -where $\mu_{\text{eff}} = \mp(\mu_1 - \mu_2)$ with $\mu_{1,2}$ the magnetic moments of mother and daughter nuclei. - -For pure Gamow-Teller transitions within isospin triplets: - -$$b^2_\gamma = \eta^6 \frac{\Gamma_{M1}^{iso}}{E_\gamma^3\alpha}, \tag{91}$$ - -where $\Gamma_{M1}^{iso}$ is the width of the analog isovector M1 gamma transition, $E_\gamma$ is the photon energy, and $\eta = 1$ (or corrected for degeneracy). - -### 2. Partially Conserved Axial Current (PCAC) - -The Goldberger-Treiman relation relates the pion-nucleon coupling to $g_A$: - -$$g_P(q^2) = -g_A(0)\frac{(2M_n)^2}{m_\pi^2 - q^2}. \tag{92}$$ - -At $q^2=0$, using nucleon and pion masses: **$g_P(0) \approx -229$**. Higher-order corrections (chiral perturbation theory, Gorringe & Fearing 2004; Bhattacharya et al. 2012) modify this at the ~5% level. Experimental measurements from muon capture ($q^2 = 0.88m_\mu^2$) are in sufficient agreement with PCAC results to warrant using them. - -**Critical point:** The quenching of $g_P$ due to meson exchange effects in nuclear matter is nucleus-dependent and can reach ~80%. Great care is needed when evaluating pseudoscalar currents for nuclear decays — Eq. (92) applies only to free nucleons. - -### 3. Second Class Currents (SCC) - -Terms are classified by their transformation under **G-parity**: $G = Ce^{i\pi T_y}$ (charge conjugation × π rotation in isospin space). Two terms transform differently from their vector/axial-vector analogues: - -- **Induced scalar** — already eliminated by CVC -- **Induced tensor** — no similar constraint exists - -The axial tensor form factor $d$ contains both first-class ($d_I$) and second-class ($d_{II}$) components. Experimentally, **no evidence for SCC has been found** (Minamisono et al., 2001, 2011; Grenacs, 1985), so $d_{II} \equiv 0$. The form factor reduces to $d = d_I$, non-zero only for transitions between **non-analog states**. - ---- - -# Hayen et al. (2017) — Summary of Chunk 8 - -## Section VI.F: Shake-off and Shake-up Processes; The Endpoint Shift (§6.C, lines 839–1055) - -### Overview - -Atomic orbital changes due to β decay (screening, exchange) affect the internal "housekeeping" of the atom. Initial and final quantum states are no longer orthogonal, allowing discrete excitations into higher allowed states (**shake-up**) and even continuum ejection (**shake-off**). These reduce available energy for the lepton pair and modify final-state interactions. At the target precision of $10^{-4}$ down to 1 keV, these effects are not always negligible. - ---- - -### 1. Shake-Up (§6.C.1) - -#### Mechanism - -Atomic electrons in final states can be excited into higher bound states rather than undergoing double ionization (shake-off). The probability is computed from radial wave function overlap integrals of initial and final bound states: -$$P_f = |\langle \phi_n^{0\prime} | \varphi_i \rangle|^2$$ -with shake-off probability as the deviation from unity when summing all such probabilities. - -**Few-electron systems are particularly susceptible.** In tritium ($^3$H), the single electron in the final state has significant probability to occupy the 2s orbital or higher (Arafune & Watanabe, 1986; Hargrove et al., 1999; Williams & Koonin, 1983). - -#### Recoil-Induced Excitation - -The recoil momentum of the daughter nucleus induces excitations due to sudden acceleration. The average excitation energy is (Feagin et al., 1979): -$$\Delta E_R = \frac{1}{2} Z m_e v_R^2 = Z E_R \frac{m_e}{M}, \quad \text{(158)}$$ - -For $Z=50$ and maximum recoil energy of 1 keV, the average excitation energy is ~0.25 eV. Atomic excitations are on the order of tens of eV, so **incomplete overlap between initial/final atomic states dominates** the shake-up picture. - -#### Q-Value Reduction - -The Q value of the decay is reduced by the mean excitation energy: -$$\Delta E_{ex} = \sum_f P_f E_f, \quad \text{(159)}$$ - -where $E_f$ is the excitation energy of final state $f$, and $P_f$ is the probability to populate that level. - -#### Effect on Screening Correction (Eq. 160) - -Possible excitations change screening: -$$S(Z, W) = 1 - \frac{Z\alpha}{p^2} + \sum_h \frac{1}{W} |\langle \phi_n^{0\prime} | \varphi_i \rangle|^2 \left( \sum_{i=1}^n \frac{1}{r_i} \right) = 1 - \frac{Z\alpha}{p^2} + \frac{1}{W} V_{00}, \quad \text{(160)}$$ - -In tritium β⁻ decay, the screening potential can change by as much as **20%** because the atomic Coulomb interaction involves only a single electron. For systems with more electrons, relative changes decrease but scale with $Z$. Neglecting shake-up introduces errors of order $\sim 1 \times 10^{-4}$. - -#### Effect on Exchange Correction - -- Medium to high Z: Shake-up probability is negligible at the $10^{-3}$ level. -- Low Z (e.g., tritium): Shake-up probabilities can be significant (~25%), and exchange with higher-lying ns orbitals must be included even if unoccupied in the initial state. - -#### Effect on Exchange Correction from Tritium - -Inclusion of shake-up changes the exchange correction at the few $10^{-4}$ level down to 0.5 keV for tritium only. Otherwise, negligible. - ---- - -### 2. Shake-Off (§6.C.2) - -#### Probability Scaling - -Non-orthogonality allows excitations including continuum ejection. Key principles from Carlson et al. (1968): - -- **(i)** For given principal quantum number $n$, shake-off probability **decreases** with increasing $Z$ (Pauli principle: only unfilled shells accessible; overlap integrals vanish for inner electrons). -- **(ii)** For a given atom, shake-off probability **increases** with $n$. -- **(iii)** Total shake-off probability is reasonably independent of Z, occurring in ~20–30% of all decays. - -K-shell ejection probability: $\sim 2 \times 10^{-3}$ for tritium; a few $10^{-4}$ for higher Z — small effect and not the primary interest here. - -#### One-Electron Ionization Probability (Eq. 161) - -$$p_\pi^D(M) \simeq 1 - \sum_{n_0 \le n_{\max}} |\langle \phi_{n_0 l'}^{D} | \varphi_{n l}^M \rangle|^2 + K |\langle \phi_{l' \pm 1}^{D} | r | \varphi_{n l}^M \rangle|^2 - K \, \text{Re}[\langle \phi_{l'}^{D} | \varphi_i \rangle \langle \phi_{l'}^{D} | r | \varphi_{n l}^M \rangle], \quad \text{(161)}$$ - -where $\phi_{nl}^{D(M)}$ has primary quantum numbers $(n,l)$ for daughter/mother, and $K = 2E_R/M$. Holes created by shake-off are filled via X-ray or Auger electron emission. - -#### Mean Energy Loss from Shake-Off - -For chlorine (Couratin et al., 2013 + Desclaux binding energies), mean energy loss per decay is **~5 eV**. Expected similar magnitude for all Z. To first order, this can be approximated as an additional decrease in $W_0$ by the weighted mean excitation energy. - -#### Change in Screening from Shake-Off (Eq. 162–163) - -For a hole in outer shell orbital $n,l$: -$$\frac{V_0 - V_{SO}}{V_0} = \frac{\langle f^0 | r^{-1} | i \rangle - \sum f'^0 \langle f^0 | i \rangle \langle f^0 | r | i \rangle}{\langle f^0 | r^{-1} | i \rangle} \approx \frac{1}{\langle f^0 | r^{-1} | i \rangle} \sum_n \frac{\langle f'^0 | i \rangle^2 Z_{\text{eff}}(1 - \Delta Z_{\text{eff}})}{n \cdot n^2}, \quad \text{(162, 163)}$$ - -With $\Delta Z_{\text{eff}} \approx 0.3$–$0.4$, for Ru$^{1+}$ this yields ~**0.1%** relative change in screening potential → few $10^{-5}$ level in spectral shape (lowest energy range). **Negligible at target precision.** - -#### Shake-Off Effect on Exchange - -Requires combining Law & Campbell (1972a,b) indistinguishability approach with Harston & Pyper (1992) exchange framework. In medium/high Z nuclei, probability for shake-off to occur in $s_{1/2}$ or $p_{1/2}$ state is **< 0.1%** — effect decreases with increasing Z. - -For tritium decay: $\chi_{\text{ex}}^{\text{cont}}$ has maximum value of **-0.01% at 1 keV**. For $^{35}$Ar hole creation in ns states, safely negligible at current precision order. - ---- - -### Section VI.E Continued: Exchange Correction — Analytical Parametrisation (§6.E.4) - -#### Challenge - -Exchange correction requires radial wave functions of both continuum and bound states over **all space** (not just near origin), for arbitrary potentials. This is a significant challenge for analytical description because: - -- Most other effects need wave functions only near the origin (power expansions suffice). -- Exchange needs integration over entire spatial domain. -- Hydrogenic approach with simple screening is insufficient for high precision. -- Pure Coulomb field analytical results [Eq.(156)] do not allow easy insertion of fit parameters. - -#### Analytical Fit Formula (Eq. 157) - -The exchange correction $X(W)$ as a function of kinetic energy $W_0 \equiv W - 1$: -$$X(W) \approx 1 + \frac{a}{W_0} + \frac{b}{W_0^2} + c \cdot e^{-d W_0} + \frac{e \cdot \sin[(W-f)g+h]}{W^i}, \quad \text{(157)}$$ - -**9 fit parameters** ($a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i$), tabulated in Appendix G for each Z individually. The $Z$ dependence is complex due to atomic shell effects (see Fig. 9). - -#### Performance - -- Excellent agreement over full tested energy range up to **1 MeV** (where all contributions dip below $10^{-4}$ level). -- Maximum differences: order of a few $\times 10^{-4}$. -- Average residuals: at the **$< 10^{-5}$** level. -- Phase space integral influence: typically **few $\times 10^{-5}$** in absolute terms. - -#### Z Dependence — Shell Effects (Fig. 9) - -Figure 9 shows orbital exchange contributions for all atoms from $s_{1/2}$ orbitals evaluated at 3 keV. Clear shell closure effects observed: - -- **Ar shell closure**: distinct feature around $Z=18$. -- **Kr shell closure**: feature around $Z=36$. -- **Xe shell closure**: feature around $Z=54$. - -Increased binding energy at higher Z reduces spatial extension of bound states → decreases overlap between bound and continuum electron radial wave functions at low energies. - ---- - -### Section VI.E Continued: Atomic Potential Sensitivity (§6.E.3, lines 680–791) - -Three potentials compared with increasing complexity for exchange correction calculation: - -#### 1. Simple Exponentially Screened Field - -- Screening strength adjusted for best agreement with bound state energies (decreasing importance for higher $n$). -- Caveat: tuning to match 1s binding energies can result in unbound higher ns states — neglected here since lowest s states dominate. - -#### 2. Three Yukawa Potentials - -- Coefficients fitted to Dirac-Hartree-Fock-Slater numerical data (Salvat et al., 1987). - -#### 3. Complete Potential (Optimized) - -- Full potential including exchange optimization turned ON ("Optimized") and OFF ("Unoptimized"). -- One free parameter in the exchange potential varied for agreement with numerically calculated binding energies to within **0.1% or 0.1 eV** (Kotochigova et al., 1997a,b; Desclaux, 1973). - -#### Results — $^{63}$Ni Comparison (Fig. 8) - -- General trend replicated by all potentials apart from very lowest energies where some orbitals give large negative contributions. -- **Without optimization**: binding energies for higher lying orbitals seriously in error → incorrect exchange correction contributions. -- The total net magnitude is a delicate quantity in low energy regions. - -#### Nuclear Radius Sensitivity (Fig. 8, bottom) - -Varying nuclear radius by 10% with optimized potential: - -- Discrepancy grows towards lower energies. -- Only crosses $10^{-4}$ at roughly **~1 keV** for $^{63}$Ni. -- For extreme case of $^{241}$Pu: spectral differences cross $10^{-4}$ level at ~**5 keV**, with constant offset reaching several parts in $10^{-4}$. -- Difference shows reasonably linear behavior on $\Delta R$ — extrapolation to reasonable uncertainties (estimated ~0.03 fm, or ~0.8% for $^{63}$Ni) brings effect below **few $\times 10^{-5}$**. - ---- - -### Numerical Methods: RADIAL Package (§6.E.2, lines 628–677) - -#### Wave Function Computation - -- Electron radial wave functions $r g_\kappa(r)$, $r f_\kappa(r)$ calculated numerically using **power expansion** at both singular points ($r=0$, $r=\infty$). -- Connected via rescaling of inner solution with $\alpha\kappa$. -- General approach: Behrens & Bühring (1982); Salvat et al. (1995). -- Fortran 77 package **RADIAL** (Salvat et al., 1995) slightly modified and interfaced with custom code for exchange effect calculation. - -#### Common Grid Construction - -Since free and bound state wave functions are solved on different grids: - -- A common grid is constructed. -- Evaluated using exact results or Lagrangian three-point interpolation. -- The overlap integrals $\langle E_{s0} | n s \rangle$ in Eqs.(154)-(155) evaluated directly. -- **Critical**: Grid must be sufficiently dense to avoid systematic errors from interpolation. - -#### Example: $^{45}$Ca Exchange Correction (Fig. 6) - -- Total effect rises to nearly **10%** in the few-keV region. -- Drops significantly in the 100 eV region due to negative contributions from higher lying orbitals (e.g., 2s). -- At very low energies (~1 keV or lower), contributions from higher-lying orbitals can become **negative**, lowering total correction by several percentage points. - -#### Example: $^{45}$Ca p$_{1/2}$ Contribution - -- Maximum contribution never exceeds a few parts in $10^5$ — completely negligible for this nucleus. -- Included in all results despite small magnitude. - -#### Example: $^{241}$Pu Exchange Correction (Fig. 7) - -- Total exchange correction reaches **~29% at 100 eV**. -- p$_{1/2}$ contribution rises to nearly **2% at 100 eV** — definitely not negligible. -- p$_{1/2}$ influence continues over range of tens of keV at target precision. - -#### Phase Space Integral Impact - -For low endpoint energy transitions, phase space integrals can be significantly altered: up to **30%** for $^{241}$Pu transitions. Effect drops quickly and is typically negligible at several hundreds of keV. - ---- - -### Key Implementation Notes - -1. **Exchange correction analytical fit** (Eq. 157) with 9 parameters per Z should be implemented as a lookup table from Appendix G values for fast computation across full energy range. -2. **Atomic potential choice matters critically**: optimized vs unoptimized can differ by $>10^{-4}$ at low energies. The complete potential approach (RADIAL-based) is recommended over simple screened Coulomb models. -3. **Nuclear radius sensitivity**: 10% variation in R causes $>10^{-4}$ spectral differences for heavy nuclei — accurate nuclear charge radii are essential input. -4. **Shake-off/shake-up effects** are generally below target precision except for: - - Tritium (shake-up ~25%, exchange correction changes at few $10^{-4}$ level). - - Low-Z light nuclei where shake-up probabilities can be significant. -5. **p$_{1/2}$ orbitals**: While typically ignored, they contribute up to 2% of total exchange in heavy nuclei ($^{241}$Pu) and are non-negligible over tens of keV range — must be included for precision work. - ---- - -# Hayen et al. (2017) — Summary of Chunk 9 (§D Atomic Overlap; §E Bound State β Decay) - -## Section VII.D: Atomic Overlap — Alternative Atomic Excitation Correction (lines 1–38) - -### Bahcall Correction (Eq. 166) - -The β decay results in a sudden change of nuclear potential, so initial and final atomic orbital wave functions only partially overlap. In first approach, this reduces to a difference in atomic binding energies (Bahcall 1963a,c,1965), also included in detailed Ft analyses (Hardy & Towner, 2009). - -The correction is constructed by looking at relative change in spectrum shape when changing $W_0$ with $W_0 - \Delta E_{ex}$. Written as: -$$r(Z,W) = 1 - \frac{1}{W_0 - W} \frac{\partial^2 B(G)}{\partial Z^2}, \quad \text{(166)}$$ - -where $B(G)$ is the total atomic binding energy for a neutral atom with $Z \pm 1$ protons (β∓ decay). The second derivative relates to average excitation energy via $\Delta E_{ex} = -\frac{1}{2}\frac{\partial^2 B(G)}{\partial Z^2}$. - -Parametrization using numerical values by Desclaux (1973): -$$K(Z) = -0.872 + 1.270 \, Z^{0.097} + 9.062 \times 10^{-11} \, Z^{4.5}, \quad \text{(169)}$$ - -The correction $r(Z,W)$ then becomes: -$$r(Z,W) = 1 - \frac{1}{W_0 - W^2} \left[ B(G)'' + 2(C'_0 + C_1) \right], \quad \text{(170)}$$ - -#### Importance Near Endpoint - -- Influence felt mainly near the endpoint where $\frac{\partial^2}{\partial Z^2}B(G)$ can reach **a few hundreds of eV**. -- Particularly important for low energy transitions: - - **$^{63}$Ni** (endpoint 67.2 keV): correction reaches **1% at 15 keV** before endpoint, increases rapidly past endpoint. - - **$^{241}$Pu** (endpoint 20.8 keV): similarly important. - ---- - -## Section VII.E: Bound State β Decay (§E, lines 39–67) - -### Two-Body Decay Mechanism - -Since the electron is created inside an electronic potential well, there exists a possibility for β decay to be captured inside the potential well and produce an electron in a bound atomic state, reducing the decay to a **two-body problem**. First studied by Daudel et al. (1947), expanded by Bahcall (1961), Kabir (1967), Bück (1983), Pyper & Harston (1988). - -### Branching Ratio (Eq. 171) - -In Bahcall notation, the ratio of bound state to continuum decay probabilities: -$$\frac{\Gamma_b}{\Gamma_c} = \frac{\pi (\alpha Z)^3}{f(Z,W_0)} (W_0 - 1)^2 \Sigma, \quad \text{(171)}$$ - -where $\Sigma$ depends on binding energy of bound orbital, atomic overlap integrals, and orbital wave functions at nuclear surface. - -#### Magnitudes - -- **Free neutron decay**: ratio ~ $4.2 \times 10^{-6}$ — completely negligible. -- **Tritium ($^3$H)**: roughly **1% for T⁺** and **0.5% for T** in initial state. -- Higher $W_0$: smaller ratios (phase space integral $f \propto W_0^5$). Kinematic dependence $\Gamma_b/\Gamma_c \propto W_0^{-3}$. -- Superallowed $0^+ \rightarrow 0^+$ decays with Q values of several MeV: probability completely negligible. -- Low energy decays and (partially) ionized initial states: correction can grow significantly. - -### Impact on ft Analysis - -This does **not** affect the β spectrum shape, as it is a separate final state in S-matrix calculation. It enters the equation when considering the **ft analysis**, however, and cannot always be neglected there. - ---- - -## Section VII.F: Chemical Influences (§F, lines 1–240) - -### Overview - -In many experiments, the decaying atom is bound within a molecule, modifying electronic structure as electrons rearrange in molecular orbitals. Additional electrons and spectator nuclei influence Coulombic final state interactions; rotational and vibrational states open more possibilities for energy transfer to molecular final state (Cantwell, 1956). - -Essential in e.g., antineutrino mass determination in tritium system. Seminal works by Saenz & Froelich describe effects *ab initio* and analytically: - -- Doss et al. (2006), Jonsell et al. (1999), Saenz & Froelich (1997a,b), Saenz et al. (2000). - -In most precise analysis, this effect introduces a **systematic error of 0.05%**. - ---- - -### 1. Recoil Corrections in Molecules (§F.1) - -When β decay occurs inside a molecule: - -- The recoiling daughter nucleus moves inside the molecular potential rather than vacuum. -- Potential described by Born-Oppenheimer energy curve, modelled with Lennard-Jones type potential. -- Daughter nucleus kicks molecule into (predissociative) rovibrational state. - -**Dissociation possibilities:** - -- **Rovibrational states**: total energy > dissociation energy → typical energy scale ~ few eV. -- **Electronic excitation** into resonant continuum: tens to hundreds of eV. - -Integrated probability depends on endpoint energy (higher endpoint → higher recoil). At target precision, this effect is neglected as a small correction on already small corrections. - -For detecting recoiling daughter atom (e.g., β-ν correlation measurement $a_{\beta\nu}$): - -- Probability for dissociation decreases with increasing Z (recoil energy $\propto 1/m$). -- Clear dependence on β-ν angular correlation: higher recoil momenta populate higher rotational/vibrational bands. -- Can be partially included by Monte Carlo simulation of recoiling nucleus in Lennard-Jones potential. - ---- - -### 2. Influence on Q Value (§F.2) - -Molecular effects add further decrease to Q value because of **rotational and vibrational excitations**. - -Numerical results mainly for $T_2$ (tritium molecule), due to high precision needed for antineutrino mass determination: - -- Excitation possibilities change to a broad continuum with resonances. -- Broadening through population of rovibrational states. -- Width of populated rovibrational energy spectrum lies in **few eV region** — typically negligible. -- Excitation into the continuum becomes non-trivial (demonstrated for $T_2$ by Doss et al., 2006). - -Averaged over entire continuum: differences between several tritium-substituted molecules is on order of **few eV**, including atomic tritium. - -The spectral shape depends on $W_0^2$, so relative error goes as $2 \times \sigma_Q / Q$. For ft values (statistical rate function $\propto Q^5$), precision requirement is even stricter: - -- Study case by case for required accuracy. -- Lowest energy transitions (tritium, $^{63}$Ni, $^{241}$Pu): crudely expect **few $10^{-4}$ to $10^{-3}$** level error for $\sigma_Q$ on order of few tens of eV. - -Decay rate change treated approximately by Pyper & Harston (1988): -$$\frac{\Delta \lambda}{\lambda} \approx \frac{3 \Delta W_0}{W_0} \left( 1 + \gamma \frac{W_0}{6} \right), \quad \text{(172)}$$ - -where $\Delta W_0$ is difference in mean endpoint energy after averaging over all final states between two chemical states. - ---- - -### 3. Molecular Screening (§F.3) - -Following Saenz & Froelich (1997a): all Coulombic effects treated equally to first order, split into electronic and nuclear parts. - -#### Fermi Function First Order (Eq. 173) - -$$P_{\text{nuc}}^{(0,1)}(p) = \sum_n \alpha |\langle \phi_0 | \varphi_n \rangle|^2 Z \left[ \frac{8W}{\pi p} + \frac{8p}{3\pi W} + \sum_S Z_S \left( \frac{W}{p^2} + \frac{1}{W} \right) \langle \xi_{000}' | \frac{1}{R_S} | \xi_{000}' \rangle \right],$$ - -where sum $n$ extends over all final states, sum $S$ takes into account all spectator nuclei, and $R_S$ is distance operator between decaying atom and spectator nucleus S. First part represents Fermi function to first order (larger by factor $p$ than effects of spectator nuclei). - -#### Analytical Approximation - -For analytical approximation: ignore energy difference in final atomic states; use closure to perform sum over $n$ (first-order corrected using atomic mismatch correction, Sec. VII.C). Each atom considered as having inert inner structure + shared valence wave function. - -Full electronic part of molecular wave function (Born-Oppenheimer approximation): -$$\psi_{\text{Mol}} = |\text{valence}\rangle \times \prod_i |\text{inert}_i\rangle, \quad \text{(174)}$$ - -Using clamped-nuclei approximation for rovibrational ground state: $\langle \xi_{000}' | R_S^{-1} | \xi_{000}' \rangle \approx R_{S,e}$ (equilibrium distance). - -#### Total Coulombic Influence (Eq. 175) - -$$P_{\text{tot}}^{(0,1)}(p) \approx \alpha \left[ Z\left(\frac{8W}{\pi p} + \frac{8p}{3\pi W}\right) + \frac{W}{p^2} + \frac{1}{W} \sum_S \frac{Z_S - Z_{S,\text{in}}}{R_{S,e}} \right] - \langle i | \frac{1}{r} | i \rangle_0' - Z_{\text{val}} \langle v | \frac{1}{r} | v \rangle,$$ - -where $Z_S - Z_{S,\text{in}}$ is screened spectator nucleus charge. - -#### Molecular Screening Correction (Eq. 176) - -$$\Delta S_{\text{Mol}} = \alpha \left[ \frac{W}{p^2} + \frac{1}{W} \sum_S \frac{Z_S - Z_{S,\text{in}}}{R_{S,e}} - Z_{\text{eff}} \langle r^{-1} \rangle_{\text{Val}} \right],$$ - -where $Z_{\text{eff}} = Z_{\text{Val}} - (Z - Z_{\text{in}})$ and $\langle r^{-1} \rangle_{\text{Val}}$ is average inverse distance of all valence electrons relative to decaying nucleus. - -**Example: $^{45}$Ca in CaCl₂ (calcium doubly oxidized, Ca(II))**: - -- Bond length measured: 2.437 Å → in natural units $R_{\text{Cl},e} \sim 600$. -- First term $\propto 3 \times 10^{-5}$ — two orders of magnitude smaller than $V_0$. -- Second term: $Z_{\text{eff}} = 2$, effect also on order of **$2 \times 10^{-5}$** with opposite sign. -- Overall molecular deviation from atomic structure: **order of $2 \times 10^{-5}$**. - -Since screening correction is typically at (sub)percent level max, molecular deviations expected to have upper limit at **few $10^{-4}$** level. - ---- - -### 4. Molecular Exchange Effect (§F.4) - -In a molecule: electronic phase space greatly enlarged and perturbed relative to single atomic state. Electron density near decaying atom can both increase and decrease in molecular bond, so overlap integral changes accordingly. - -#### LCAO Approximation - -Molecular orbitals constructed from linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO). For qualitative argument: approximate that internal orbitals for all atoms are same in molecular as atomic case. Molecular valence orbitals = combination of occupied atomic valence orbitals + energetically close atomic excited states. - -- **Ionic bond** (valence electron nearly fully removed): exchange effect $\approx 0$ because internuclear distances >> β Compton wavelength where wave function rapidly oscillates. -- **Reverse extreme** (valence electron density doubled): naively doubles the exchange correction. Conservative treatment: treat last orbital contribution with **100% error bar**. - -#### Error Estimate - -Taking Fig. 6 as example: introduces **< $1 \times 10^{-4}$** error from 15 keV onwards, grows to **0.5% at 1 keV**. For $^{241}$Pu: valence orbital is 7s (contribution drops below $10^{-4}$ after 3 keV while max quickly grows to 1% in first 0.5 keV). - -Effect of wave function change in lattice vs gas studied by Kolos et al. (1988) for tritium — no significant change found. Due to conservative error bar, **completely absorbed and can be neglected**. - ---- - -### Table VII: Complete Overview of β Spectrum Shape Corrections (§VIII start, lines 243–308) - -| Item | Effect | Formula | Magnitude | -|------|--------|---------|-----------| -| 1 | Phase space factor | $pW(W_0 - W)^2$ | Unity or larger | -| 2 | Traditional Fermi function | $F_0$ (Eq. 6) | — | -| 3 | Finite size of nucleus | $L_0$ (Eq. 16) | — | -| 4 | Radiative corrections | $R$ (Eq. 47) | — | -| 5 | Shape factor | $C$ (Eqs. 100, 105) | $10^{-1}$–$10^{-2}$ | -| 6 | Atomic exchange | $X$ (Eq. 157) | — | -| 7 | Atomic mismatch | $r$ (Eq. 170) | | -| 8 | Atomic screening | $S$ (Eq. 144)$^a$ | **$10^{-3}$–$10^{-4}$** | -| 9 | Shake-up | See item 7 & Eq. (160)$^b$ | | -| 10 | Shake-off | See items 7, 163, $\chi_{\text{ex}}^{\text{cont}}$(Eq. 164)$^c$ | | -| 11 | Isovector correction | $C_I$ (Eq. 113) | | -| 12 | Distorted Coulomb potential due to recoil | $Q$ (Eq. 45) | **$10^{-3}$–$10^{-4}$** | -| 13 | Diffuse nuclear surface | $U$ (Eqs. 25, 29) | — | -| 14 | Nuclear deformation | DFS (Eq. 40) & $D_C$ (Eq. 135) | — | -| 15 | Recoiling nucleus | $R_N$ (Eq. 41) | — | -| 16 | Molecular screening | $\Delta S_{\text{Mol}}$ (Eq. 176) | — | -| 17 | Molecular exchange | Case by case | — | -| 18 | Bound state β decay | $\Gamma_b/\Gamma_c$ (Eq. 171)$^d$ | Smaller than $1 \times 10^{-4}$ | -| 19 | Neutrino mass | Negligible | < $1 \times 10^{-4}$ | -| 20 | Forbidden decays | Not incorporated | — | - -$^a$: Salvat potential of Eq.(147) used with $X$(Eq.145) set to unity. -$^b$: Shake-up effect on screening discussed in Sec.VII.C.1. -$^c$: Case by case evaluation required for shake-off influences on screening/exchange. -$^d$: Does not affect spectral shape but enters ft analysis. - ---- - -### Section VIII: Overview and Crosscheck — Superallowed Fermi Decays (lines 243–270) - -#### Comparison with Towner & Hardy (2015) f Values (Fig. 10) - -Ratio of $f$ values calculated within this framework vs. results by Hardy & Towner (2015): - -- **Excellent agreement**: all residuals in the few $10^{-4}$ region. -- Particularly interesting for heaviest nuclei: e.g., **$^{74}$Rb** — 11 neutrons away from closest stable isotope, subject to strong deformations and shape coexistence ($\beta_2 = +0.401$). -- For four exotic nuclei ($^{62}$Ga, $^{66}$As, $^{70}$Br, $^{74}$Rb): shown results for both spherical shell model and deformed filling (valence nucleons outside $N=Z=28$ shell closure in Nilsson model). -- Deformation does not influence isovector correction as long as $w$ remains equal. - -**Conclusion**: Can trust validity of approach for pure Fermi decays in completely analytical manner without additional computation, even for extremely exotic nuclei. - ---- - -### Mirror Decays — ft Value Comparison (lines 271–450) - -The ratio of vector and axial vector f values: -$$\equiv \frac{2Ft_{0^+ \rightarrow 0^+}}{Ft_{\text{mirror}}} = \frac{1}{1 + f_{VA} \rho^2}, \quad \text{(177)}$$ - -where $\rho$ is the mixing ratio. Separate f values calculated by Towner & Hardy (2015). - -#### Vector Sector (§VIII, lines 314–332) - -- **Exquisite agreement**: all differences smaller than $4 \times 10^{-4}$. -- Holstein form factor $d$ vanishes identically for mirror nuclei. -- CVC allows precise calculation of weak magnetism from experimental data (Severijns et al., TBP). - -#### Axial Vector Sector — Two Approaches (§VIII, lines 327–398) - -**Approach A: Extreme Single Particle (ESP) with Spherical Harmonic Oscillator (Fig. 11)** - -- General agreement good but distinct features for outliers at **$^{33}$Cl and $^{35}$Ar**: disagreement reaches **~1%**. -- Shell model also unable to correctly calculate weak magnetism contribution ($b/Ac_1$) in these cases — accuracy only ~10%. -- Deviations from unity don't necessarily mean failure of $\Lambda$ evaluation. - -**Approach B: Deformed Woods-Saxon (DWS) Potential (Fig. 12)** - -- Moving from spherical harmonic oscillator to deformed Woods-Saxon while retaining ESP shows **remarkable agreement**. -- Single particle wave function expanded in spherical harmonic oscillator basis; coefficients calculated by numerical diagonalization of deformed Hamiltonian (C++ code, Hayen & Severijns, TBP). -- Deviations when using CVC results can be attributed to shell model limitations (~10% accuracy on $b/Ac_1$). - -#### Induced Pseudoscalar Contribution (§VIII, lines 423–434) - -- Assuming free nucleon value $g_P = -229$, contribution comparable to ratio of matrix elements → strong deviations expected. -- Possible shifts even on per mille level when ignored. -- Reasonable error must be attributed to all ft$_A$/ft$_V$ calculations until accurate accounting method found. - -#### Key Finding: Weak Magnetism Uncertainty (§VIII, lines 402–416) - -Differences in weak magnetism predictions can shift $f_A/f_V$ values by **several parts in $10^3$**, undermining claims of reaching 0.01% theoretical precision (Towner & Hardy, 2015). - -Most precisely measured mirror ft isotope: **$^{19}$Ne** — behaves well under ESP approximation and not much affected by this concern. Experimental campaigns ongoing for $a_{\beta\nu}$ of $^{32}$Ar, $^{19}$Ne, $^{35}$Ar; $\beta$-asymmetry parameter of $^{35}$Ar, $^{37}$K. - -For extraction of $V_{ud}$ to be valid: significant attention needed for precise evaluation of **$\Lambda$ factor in Eq.(107)**. - ---- - -# Hayen et al. (2017) — Summary of Chunks 10, 11, 12 (§VIII–X + Appendices A–G) - ---- - -## Section VIII: Overview and Crosscheck (continued from chunk 9) - -### Mirror Decays — Deformed Woods-Saxon Results (Fig. 12) - -Moving to deformed Woods-Saxon potential while retaining ESP shows **remarkable agreement** with much more advanced shell model calculations, using only the extreme single particle approximation. The C++ code (Hayen & Severijns, TBP) calculates all nuclear relevant matrix elements $V/A \, M_{KL}^{s}$ automatically. - -### Remaining Uncertainties: Weak Magnetism - -- Differences in weak magnetism predictions can shift $f_A/f_V$ values by **several parts in $10^3$**. -- Shell model performs only marginally better than deformed ESP approach for predicting weak magnetism (~10% accuracy). -- Raises serious questions on validity and accuracy of presently available calculations at claimed 0.01% precision (Towner & Hardy, 2015). - -### Induced Pseudoscalar Component (§VIII end) - -Assuming free nucleon value $g_P = -229$, contribution comparable to ratio of matrix elements → strong deviations expected on per mille level when ignored. Reasonable error must be attributed to all ft$_A$/ft$_V$ calculations until accurate accounting method found. - ---- - -## Section IX: Beta-Spectrum Shape Sensitivity to Weak Magnetism and Fierz Terms (§IX, lines 452–71) - -### Normalized Shape Factor (Eq. 178) - -$$S(W) = C(Z,W) / C(Z, W_{\text{norm}}), \quad \text{(178)}$$ - -where $C$ is the shape factor normalized to unity at some reference energy $W_{\text{norm}}$. The slope $dS/dW$ provides physics information. Typical value for $b/Ac_1 \approx 5$ (Wauters et al., 2010). For $b_{\text{Fierz}}$: precision of **1% or better** typically required in view of current constraints on CS/CT coupling constants. - -At ~0.1% precision, measurements of $b_{\text{Fierz}}$ in nuclear β decay and neutron decay remain competitive with direct searches for new bosons (scalar/tensor type) at LHC ($p + p \rightarrow e^+ + \cancel{E}_T + X$). - -### Spectral Sensitivity (§IX.A, lines 1–37 from chunk 11) - -- Weak magnetism and non-zero Fierz interference term modify β spectrum shape in energy-dependent fashion. -- **Fierz term**: sensitivity varies as $1/E$ → advantageous for measuring at **low energies**. -- **Weak magnetism**: effect proportional to $E$ → favorable for measuring at **high energy endpoint**. - -#### Experimental Shape Factor (historical approach — Calaprice & Holstein, 1976) - -Unnormalized shape factor: counts per β-particle energy divided by phase space factor $K(Z,W,W_0,M) \cdot pW(W-W_0)^2$. Then normalized to unity at $W_{\text{norm}}$ by dividing by value at that energy. - -#### Slope Analysis - -For $b_{\text{Fierz}} = 0.005$, slope over first 250 keV interval is **−0.33% MeV⁻¹**. Energy-dependent information of theoretical spectrum must be accurate enough to guarantee all remaining slope artifacts are **< 0.1% MeV⁻¹**. - -#### Low-Energy Degeneracy Problem - -At lowest energies, Fierz term spectral modification is approximately linear in energy regime: experiments sensitive to $\sim (b_{\text{wm}} - b_{\text{Fierz}})E$ — **no way to decouple separate contributions** from their energy-dependent behavior. - -This underscores the required precision and accuracy in evaluating weak magnetism contribution when searching for new physics. - -#### Example: Shape Factor Plot (§IX, Fig. 13) - -Shape factor $S(W)$ shown for: - -- $b/Ac_1 = 5$ and $b/Ac_1 = 3$ (weak magnetism) -- $b_{\text{Fierz}} = 0.005$ and $b_{\text{Fierz}} = 0.001$ - -Both effects normalized at 100 keV. Clearly shows need for accurate value of $b/Ac_1$ when extracting Fierz term, and the advantage of measuring low energy transitions for Fierz vs high energy endpoint for weak magnetism. - ---- - -## Section X: Conclusions and Outlook (§X, lines 38–62 from chunk 11) - -Key conclusions: - -1. **Fully analytical description** of β spectrum shape presented — combining kinematical, electromagnetic, nuclear and atomic corrections to a few parts in $10^4$. Corrections expected to hold from **1 keV to the endpoint**. -2. **Atomic corrections importance**: largest deviations at low energy but influence felt at high energy too. Screening framework combined with Dirac-Hartree-Fock-Slater calculations shows excellent agreement down to lowest energies — avoids ambiguous screening exponent evaluation. -3. Atomic exchange calculations performed for entire atomic number chain; fit provided for analytical evaluation with high precision. **Exchange with p$_{1/2}$ orbitals** (oft-neglected) shown to be significant and included. -4. Combined with Wilkinson's electromagnetic finite size corrections. -5. Nuclear structure corrections derived for both Fermi and Gamow-Teller decay in Holstein notation while maintaining Behrens-Bühring precision of lepton wave function and nuclear current decomposition. -6. **Weak magnetism**: can be analytically calculated to sufficient precision given proper extreme single-particle description. Deformed Woods-Saxon potential provides excellent agreement when spherical HO fails. -7. Induced pseudoscalar contribution influences Gamow-Teller shape factor — important for mirror decay experiments reaching superallowed transition precision. -8. **Compared against Towner & coauthors** most precise numerical f value calculations: very good agreement throughout entire investigated mass range, even for exotic deformed nuclei. -9. Spectral shape measurements have advantage of being less sensitive to nuclear structure effects outside of weak magnetism → basis for experimental BSM searches exploring per mille regime. - -### Reactor Antineutrino Anomaly (§X end) - -- Beta-spectrum shape calculation is perfect tool to study **weak magnetism contribution**, particularly important for higher masses where little is known experimentally. -- Important ingredient in analysis of reactor antineutrino anomaly (Mueller et al., 2011). -- Current analysis assumes constant weak magnetism throughout entire fission fragment region — not optimal treatment of this complex effect. -- Correct treatment of higher order effects forms basis for correct translation from **electron to antineutrino spectra**. -- Atomic effects, though mainly confined to lower energy regions, are transported to end of antineutrino spectrum and remain highly relevant → underlines importance of precise atomic description at low energy. - -### Automation (§X) - -Full calculation automated in custom code (Hayen & Severijns, TBP): based on simple configuration files, aims for flexibility and user-friendliness given vast size of work. - ---- - -## Appendix A: General Shape Factor — Charge Distribution Corrections (§A) - -### Superallowed Fermi Decay with Full Charge Distribution - -Using Wilkinson (1993b) notation to write form factors $F^{(0)}_{ke\,mn\rho}$ and $F^{(1)}_{ke\,mn\rho}$: - -$$F^{(0)}_{ke\,mn\rho} = \frac{V F^{(0)}}{V F^{(0)}_{000}}, \quad F^{(1)}_{ke\,mn\rho} = \dots, \quad \text{(A2)}$$ - -Due to property $I(k_e,m,n,0) \equiv 1$: -$$V F^{(1)}_{000} / V F^{(0)}_{000} = \langle r^2 \rangle / R^2, \quad \text{(A3)}$$ - -Assuming uniformly charged sphere with radius $R$ → $\langle r^2 \rangle_{\text{exp}} = 3R^2/5$. Better: use **modified Gaussian distribution** (Eq. 18) with one fit parameter $A$, calculated by Wilkinson's method from experimental charge radii. - -#### Modified Gaussian Fit Parameters (Eqs. A4–A6) - -$$F^{(1)}_{1111} = 0.757 + 0.0069(1 - \exp(-A/1.008)), \quad \text{(A4)}$$ -$$F^{(1)}_{1221} = 0.844 - 0.0182(1 - \exp(-A/1.974)), \quad \text{(A5)}$$ -$$F^{(1)}_{1222} = 1.219 - 0.0640(1 - \exp(-A/1.550)), \quad \text{(A6)}$$ - -#### General Form Factors (Eqs. A1a–c for Fermi; A7a–c for Gamow-Teller) - -Full expressions given in terms of $V F^{(n)}$ and $A F^{(n)}$ with various $(k,m,n,\rho)$ combinations, including $\alpha ZR$ expansion terms up to order $(\alpha Z)^2$. - -### Screening Within Nuclear Volume (§A end) - -Neglected atomic electron influence on electrostatic potential in shape factor evaluation. Largest effect already accounted for by screening correction (Eq. 140/144). - -For high-Z cases, perturbation order of expressions may be insufficient: - -- First-order expansion gives $\Delta U \sim O(\alpha)$. -- Shape factor changes by **few parts in $10^4$** up to large Z — insignificant at that precision level. -- For best performance: further expansion required or replaced with fully numerical approach. - ---- - -## Appendix B: Single-Particle Matrix Elements (§B, lines 207–326) - -### Gamow-Teller Form Factors Not Transformable via CVC - -In Behrens-Bühring notation: $V F^{(0)}_{111}$ (weak magnetism), $A M^{(0)}_{110}$ (induced tensor), $A M^{(0)}_{121}$. - -#### General Expression (Eq. B1) - -$$\sqrt{2J_i+1}\, A/V \, M_{1L}^s \approx \sqrt{\frac{2}{2J_i+1}} G_{1L}^s(\kappa_f,\kappa_i) \frac{\langle r^L \rangle}{R} L, \quad \text{(B1)}$$ - -#### Spin-Reduced Matrix Elements (Eq. B2) - -For $A/V \, M_{11s}$: combination of large and small radial functions with $G_{11s}$ coefficients capturing spin-angular information (Weidenmüller 1961; Behrens & Bühring 1982). - -$$\frac{A/V}{\sqrt{2J_i+1}} M_{11s}^s \approx \text{sign}(\kappa_i) G_{11s}(\kappa_f,-\kappa_i) \langle g_f | r/R | f_i \rangle + \text{sign}(\kappa_f) G_{11s}(-\kappa_f,\kappa_i) \langle f_f | r/R | g_i \rangle, \quad \text{(B2)}$$ - -### Explicit Single-Particle Results (categorized by $j_i$, $j_f$) - -For $j_i = j_f = l + 1/2$: -$$M_{0101}^0 = \sqrt{\frac{2(l+1)(2l+3)}{(2J_i+1)(2l+1)}} \cdot I, \quad \text{(B3a-type)}$$ -$$M_{0121}^0 = -\sqrt{\frac{2}{2J_i+1}} \sqrt{\frac{l(l+1)}{(2l+1)(2l+3)}} \cdot 2\frac{\langle r^2 \rangle}{R^2}, \quad \text{(B3b-type)}$$ -$$M_{0111}^0 = -\sqrt{\frac{6(l+1)(2l+3)}{(2J_i+1)(2l+1)}} \cdot \frac{I}{2M_N R}, \quad \text{(B3c-type)}$$ -$$M_{0110}^0 = -\sqrt{\frac{2}{2J_i+1}} \sqrt{\frac{2(l+1)}{(2l+1)(2l+3)}} \cdot \xi\frac{\langle r^2 \rangle}{2R}, \quad \text{(B3d-type)}$$ - -Similar expressions for $j_i = j_f = l - 1/2$ and mixed cases. - -#### Small Function Ratio (Eq. B4–B5) - -$$I = \int_0^\infty g_f(r) f_i(r) r^2 dr \approx 1 \text{ in non-relativistic approx.}$$ -$$\xi \frac{\langle r^2 \rangle}{R^2} = \int_0^\infty g_f(r) \left[ E_i - E_f - (V_i - V_f) \right] \frac{r^2}{R^2} g_i(r) dr, \quad \text{(B4)}$$ - -For spherical harmonic oscillator: -$$\xi = \frac{2\nu}{M_N} [2(n_i - n_f) + l_i - l_f], \quad \text{(B5)}$$ - -where $\nu$ is harmonic oscillator parameter (Eq. 115a). - ---- - -## Appendix C: Many-Particle Matrix Elements in jj-Coupling (§C, lines 344–427) - -### Odd-Z, Odd-N to Even-Z, Even-N β Decays and Vice Versa - -Using Rose & Osborn (1954a), written using isospin formalism (Wilkinson, 1969). For two particles in initial/final states coupled to core isospin. - -#### o-o to e-e Transitions (Eq. C1) - -$$\langle j_2 j_2 J_f M_f T_f T_{3f} | \sum_n O_{KLs}^n \tau_n^\pm | j_1 j_2 J_i M_i T_i T_{3i} \rangle = \hat{J}_i \hat{J}_f \hat{T}_i \hat{T}_f (-)^{\dots} \begin{Bmatrix} T_f & 1/2 \\ T_i & T_f^{(2)} \end{Bmatrix} \times [\dots] \langle j_2 || O_{KLs} || j_1 \rangle + [1 - (-)^{j_1+j_2}] \begin{Bmatrix} j_2 & J_f & j_1 \\ J_i & j_2 & K \end{Bmatrix} \langle j_2 || O_{KLs} || j_2 \rangle \delta_{j_1 j_2} \langle 1/2 || t || 1/2 \rangle$$ - -For e-e to o-o: equivalent formula. $\langle 1/2 || t || 1/2 \rangle = \sqrt{3/2}$. - -### Deformation Case - -When deformation present, angular momentum $J$ is no longer good quantum number; Eq.(C1) must be rewritten using spin-reduced matrix elements (Berthier & Lipnik, 1966): - -$$\langle \phi(J_f K_f; \mathcal{F}_f) || \sum_n O_{KLs}^\pm \tau_n^\pm || \phi(J_i K_i=0; \mathcal{F}_i=0) \rangle = (-)^{\dots} [1 + (-)^{J_i}] \sum_{j_2,j_1} C_{j_2\mathcal{F}_2} C_{j_1\mathcal{F}_1} (-)^{j_2-\mathcal{F}_2} \langle j_2 || O_{KLs} || j_1 \rangle, \quad \text{(C2)}$$ - ---- - -## Appendix D: Relativistic Coulomb Amplitudes (§D) - -### Smallness of Relativistic Matrix Elements - -For spectral shape measurements at aimed-for precision level, relativistic matrix elements are **insignificant** but discussed briefly for completeness. - -#### Pure Fermi Transitions (Eq. D1) - -$$V C(Z,W)_{\text{rel}} = V F^{(0)}_{011} f_2(W) + V F^{(0)}_{011} f_3(W), \quad \text{(D1)}$$ - -Coulomb functions $f_2$ and $f_3$ written in terms of Table VIII elements: -$$f_2^V(W) = -2(D_1 + N_1) + 2\frac{\mu}{W} d_1, \quad \text{(D2a)}$$ -$$f_3^V(W) = -2(D_3 + N_1 H_2 - N_2 D_1 - N_3) + 2\frac{\mu}{W}(d_3 - N_2 d_1), \quad \text{(D2b)}$$ - -Note: $D_1(1) + N_1(1) = \alpha Z/2 + W_0 R/3$ — independent of $W$. Typical values for $f_i(W)$ are on percent level smaller. Relativistic matrix elements $\propto V F^{(N)}_{011}$ obey recursion relations after invoking CVC (Eq. 89). - -### Table VIII: Coefficients in Leptonic Radial Wave Function Expansion - -Coefficients $H_{2\sigma}$, $D_{2\sigma+1}$, $h_{2\sigma}$, $N_\sigma$, and $d_{2\sigma+1}$ for expansion of leptonic radial wave functions using older Behrens-Jänecke (1969) leptonic wave expansion. - ---- - -## Appendix E: Comparison — Behrens-Bühring vs. Holstein Formalisms (§E, lines 462–738) - -### Motivation - -Confusion exists in the name "finite size effects" as it entails different things for different authors. This work based on rigorous Behrens-Bühring approach but written in more transparent Holstein form factors for clarity and interpretation of experimental results. - ---- - -### 1. Generalization Including Electrostatics (§E.1) - -#### Simple Hamiltonian (Eq. E1) - -$$H_\beta = \frac{G \cos\theta_C}{\sqrt{2}} [\bar{u}(p)\gamma_\mu(1+\gamma_5)v(l)] \langle p_2 | V^\mu + A^\mu | 0 \rangle + H.c., \quad \text{(E1)}$$ - -Plane waves used for leptons. S-matrix developed to first order. Coulomb interaction must be incorporated between nucleus and outgoing leptons. - -#### Two Approaches - -**Behrens-Bühring (BB):** Expands electron wave function in powers of $(\alpha Z)\rho$, $(WR)^{\nu-\rho}$, $(m_e R)^{\mu-\nu}$ with coefficients encoded in functions $I(|\kappa|,\mu,\nu,\rho; r)$ — sensitive to nuclear potential. - -**Holstein et al.:** Starts from generalized matrix element (Armstrong & Kim 1972b): -$$M = \sqrt{\frac{G \cos\theta_C}{2}} \int d^3r\, \bar{\Psi}_e(r,p) \gamma_\mu(1+\gamma_5) v(l) \int \frac{d^3k}{(2\pi)^3} e^{i\mathbf{r}\cdot\mathbf{k}} \langle p_2 + p - k | V^\mu + A^\mu | 0 \rangle, \quad \text{(E2)}$$ - -Both results identical up to this point after neglecting difference in initial/final Coulomb potentials. Both expand nuclear current using form factors (replacing impulse-approximation results of Eqs. 83). - ---- - -### 2. Approximations by Holstein and Notes for the Wary (§E.2) - -#### Electron Wave Function Expansion Difference - -Holstein expansion keeps only leading $j=1/2$ and $j=3/2$ terms → function of $f_\kappa, g_\kappa$ with $\kappa \in \{-2,-1,1,2\}$. - -**First critical difference**: Holstein expansion performed **only for uniformly charged sphere**. Discussion in Sec. IV shows this is insufficient — diffuse charge distribution effects cannot be ignored. - -#### Nuclear Current Expansion Difference - -Second crucial difference: combination of nuclear current expansion with lepton wave function expansion handled differently. - ---- - -### 3. Fermi Function and Finite Size Correction (§E.3) - -Coulomb corrections depend on integrals A–G, which depend on weak charge distribution (Calaprice & Holstein, 1976). - -#### Gamow-Teller Approximation: Constant Form Factor (§E.3) - -If $c(q^2)$ approximated as constant → $\rho(r)$ becomes Dirac delta function → only A and B survive: -$$|A|^2 + |B|^2 = N_e \frac{1}{2} \frac{2m_e}{W} \int d^3r\, \delta^3(r) [g_{-1}^2(r) + (W_0 - W)^2/p^2 f_1^2(r)] = F_0 L_0, \quad \text{(E9)}$$ - -Taking into account differing normalization definitions of BB vs Holstein. - -Holstein result by Calaprice & Holstein (1976) and Huffaker & Laird (1967): -$$|A|^2 + |B|^2 \approx F_0 [1 \mp \alpha Z W R / 15], \quad \text{(E10)}$$ - -**Clearly less precise than Eq.(16)** — contains no corrections from diffuse nuclear charge, for which explicit expressions and analytical parametrizations derived in Sec. IV.A.2. - -#### Nuclear-Leptonic Convolution (§E.4) - -Finite nuclear size affects not only Coulomb potential but behavior of wave function near origin. Matrix element requires averaging over all nucleon positions (inherent in C factor definition, Sec. VI.E). - -First-order expansion: $c(q^2) \approx c_1 + c_2 q^2$: -$$\rho \approx \int \frac{d^3k}{(2\pi)^3} e^{i\mathbf{r}\cdot\mathbf{k}} [1 + (W_0 + i\nabla)^2] = [1 + (W_0 + i\nabla)^2] \delta^3(r), \quad \text{(E12)}$$ - -All leptonic radial wave functions evaluated at nuclear center, multiplied by constant factor depending on nuclear structure → all results proportional to Fermi function defined at origin. - -#### Critical Comparison: Holstein vs BB Results (§E.4) - -For uniformly charged sphere with $c_2/c_1 = \frac{1}{6} R^2$: -$$HS\, C(Z,W)^0_{\text{old}} = 1 + \frac{R^2}{5} - \frac{(W_0 R)^2}{5} - \frac{(\alpha Z)^2}{20} \pm \frac{\alpha Z W_0 R}{15} \mp \frac{\alpha Z W R}{15} + \dots, \quad \text{(E14)}$$ - -With old expansion (Behrens & Jänecke 1969; Wilkinson 1990) for Gamow-Teller: -$$old\, C(Z,W)^0 = 1 + {}^A C_0 + A C_1 W + A C_2 W^2, \quad \text{(E15)}$$ - -where ${}^A C_0$, $C_1$, $C_2$ given by Eq.(E16) — every term identifiable with similar one in Eq.(E14), **except factor 2 difference** in $\alpha Z W_0 R$ term. All results valid only for uniformly charged sphere. - -In Sec.A: deviation from uniform density analyzed; isovector correction $C_I$ (Sec.VI.F) introduced to correct breakdown — due to its large contribution, cannot be neglected. - ---- - -### 4. Induced Terms (§E.5) - -Holstein formalism requires adjustment for approximation in Eq.(E5). Initially, Coulomb corrections to induced terms neglected (already suppressed by $q/M$), but not strictly valid per Bottino et al. (1973, 1974). - -Starting from Armstrong & Kim result: $\langle f(p_f) | \rangle$ should be replaced by $\langle f(p_f + p_e - p') |$, introducing Coulomb corrections to induced terms as function of $q' = (p_f + p_e - p') - p_i$ rather than $q = p_f - p_i$. - -The correction factor from Calaprice & Holstein: -$$\delta h_1(Z) \approx \sqrt{\frac{10}{6}} \frac{\alpha Z}{MR} c_1 (2b + d_{II} \pm d_I \pm c_1), \quad \text{(E18)}$$ - -Can be obtained from Bottino et al. results after proper conversion. **No artificial separation** of nuclear structure and Coulombic terms in BB formalism → these corrections occur naturally in C factor. - ---- - -### 5. Validity of Harmonic Oscillator Functions (§F) - -Wang et al. (2016) addressed finite size corrections using Density Functional Theory (DFT), calculating weak charge density analytically to first order in $\alpha Z$ and R, rewritten in terms of Zemach moments: - -$$\delta_{FS}^{\text{Wang}} = -\frac{\alpha Z}{3} \left[ 4 W \langle r \rangle^{(2)} + W_r \langle r \rangle^{(2)}_r - \frac{1}{W} (2\langle r \rangle^{(2)} - \langle r \rangle_r^{(2)}) \right], \quad \text{(F1)}$$ - -where $\langle r \rangle^{(2)}$ and $\langle r \rangle_r^{(2)}$ defined by Eqs.(F2)–(F3): -$$\langle r \rangle^{(2)} = \int d^3s \int d^3r\, \rho_w(r)\, \rho_{ch}(|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{s}|), \quad \text{(F2)}$$ -$$\langle r \rangle_r^{(2)} = \int d^3s \int d^3r\, \rho_w(r)\, s \frac{\partial}{\partial r} \rho_{ch}(|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{s}|). \quad \text{(F3)}$$ - -Here $\rho_w$ and $\rho_{ch}$ are weak and regular charge densities. - -#### Comparison: DFT vs Analytical Harmonic Oscillator (§F end) - -Table IX compares $hr^2 i_w^{\text{Wang}}$, $hr^2 i_w^{\text{HO}}$, $hri^{(2)}_{\text{BB}}^U$, $hri^{(2)}_{\text{BB}}^{HO}$, and $hri^{(2)}_{\text{Wang}}$ for several β⁻ transitions ($A=14$ to $A=121$). - -**Approximations used (Eqs. F4–F5):** -$$\langle r \rangle^{(2)} \approx \langle r \rangle_{ch} + \frac{\langle r^2 \rangle_w \langle r^{-1} \rangle_{ch}}{3}, \quad \text{(F4)}$$ -$$\langle r \rangle_r^{(2)} \approx \frac{2\langle r^2 \rangle_w \langle r^{-1} \rangle_{ch}}{3}. \quad \text{(F5)}$$ - -Eq.(F5) is a **poor approximation** — overestimates integral by ~30% (see Table IX last column for Sn/Sb). - -#### Agreement Assessment - -- Lower masses: fair agreement. -- Highest masses ($A > 100$): differences appear due to two reasons: - 1. Considering only final decaying neutron not valid — quantum number difference between proton/neutron orbitals too large; actual overlap integral requires $\int r^2 R_{nl}^\alpha R_{n'l'}^\beta dr$. - 2. HO functions are charge-insensitive, while DFT results are not → expect additional effect from isospin invariance breakdown (nuclear mismatch $\delta_C$, Towner & Hardy, 2010). - -Application #1 yields results accurate to **within 10% of DFT results**. Remaining discrepancy attributed to inherent limitations of HO treatment and nuclear mismatch problem. The latter drops out to first order when taking ratios of matrix elements suffering from same issue — sufficient for current purposes. Extension to deformed nuclei straightforward (deformed Woods-Saxon with HO basis functions → excellent agreement). - ---- - -## Appendix G: Tabulation of Fit Parameters for Exchange Correction (§G) - -### Table X: Eq.(157) Coefficients for Z = 2 to Z = 120 - -Full tabulation provided in original paper (lines 834–957 of chunk 12). The analytical fit parameters $a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i$ from: - -$$X(W) \approx 1 + \frac{a}{W_0} + \frac{b}{W_0^2} + c \cdot e^{-d W_0} + \frac{e \cdot \sin[(W-f)g+h]}{W^i}, \quad \text{(157)}$$ - -where $W_0 = W - 1$ is the kinetic energy. These parameters are already present in the codebase at `/home/unzhakov/workspace/beta_shape_pnpi/beta_spectrum/data/exchange_coeff.csv`. - -The table shows clear shell-structure effects (e.g., parameter discontinuities near Ar, Kr, Xe closures) due to atomic orbital occupancy changes. - ---- - -## Summary of All Chunks Read - -| Chunk | Content | File | -|-------|---------|------| -| 1–6 | Abstract through nuclear structure intro; all major correction terms | `/tmp/hayen2017_summary_01-06.md` | -| 7 | β decay Hamiltonian, BB vs HS notation, CVC/PCAC/SCC | `/tmp/hayen2017_summary_07.md` | -| 8 | Isospin breakdown; exchange correction (analytical fit §E.4, potential sensitivity §E.3, RADIAL package); shake-off/shake-up (§C) | `/tmp/hayen2017_summary_08.md` | -| 9 | Atomic overlap/Bahcall correction; bound state β decay; chemical influences (§D–F); Table VII overview; superallowed Fermi crosscheck; mirror decays | `/tmp/hayen2017_summary_09.md` | -| 10 | Mirror decays (cont.); Fierz/weak magnetism sensitivity intro; Section VIII end with Table VII complete; BSM physics outlook (§IX start) | part of chunk 10 in summary above | -| 11 | Beta-spectrum shape sensitivity to weak magnetism and Fierz terms (§IX); Conclusions & Outlook (§X) | `/tmp/hayen2017_summary_11.md` (to be written — content covered above) | -| 12 | Appendices A–G: general shape factor; single-particle matrix elements; many-particle jj-coupling; relativistic Coulomb amplitudes; BB vs HS comparison; HO validity; exchange fit parameter table X | part of chunk 12 in summary above | diff --git a/docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2019_Hayen_first_forbidden_transitions.md b/docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2019_Hayen_first_forbidden_transitions.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3890f6d..0000000 --- a/docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2019_Hayen_first_forbidden_transitions.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,192 +0,0 @@ -# First-forbidden transitions in the reactor anomaly - -**Authors:** L. Hayen, J. Kostensalo, N. Severijns, and J. Suhonen -**Affiliations:** - -1. Instituut voor Kern- en Stralingsfysica, KU Leuven, Belgium -2. Department of Physics, University of Jyväskylä, Finland -**Date:** August 23, 2019 -**Source:** arXiv:1908.08302v1 [nucl-th] - ---- - -## Abstract - -This paper describes microscopic calculations of dominant forbidden transitions in reactor antineutrino spectra above 4 MeV using the nuclear shell model. By incorporating Coulomb corrections in the most complete way, the authors calculate the shape factor with high fidelity, showing strong deviations from allowed approximations. Despite small differences in ab initio electron cumulative spectra, large differences (several percent) are found in antineutrino spectra. The authors propose a parametrization of forbidden spectra and derive spectral corrections and uncertainties using Monte Carlo techniques. They conclude that a correct treatment of forbidden transitions is indispensable for solving both the reactor normalization anomaly and the spectral shoulder. - -## I. Introduction - -The field of short baseline reactor neutrinos has seen significant activity, driven by long-standing issues like the LSND anomaly [1, 2], GALLIX & SAGE collaborations [3], and the Reactor Antineutrino Anomaly (RAA) [4, 5]. The RAA involves a normalization deficit and a "5 MeV bump" in the spectrum [8–12]. Theoretical predictions often rely on the Huber and Mueller et al. treatments [14, 15], which introduced strong approximations for forbidden transitions. This work aims to provide a more complete analysis using the nuclear shell model for transitions above 4 MeV. - -## II. $\beta$ Decay Formalism - -The treatment of forbidden $\beta$ decays is complex, involving kinematic, nuclear, and Coulomb terms. The transition matrix element is given by: - -$$ -\mathcal{M}_{fi} = \int \mathrm{d}^3r \, \bar{\phi}_e(\vec{r}, \vec{p}_e) \gamma^\mu (1+\gamma^5) v(\vec{p}_\nu) \times \int \frac{\mathrm{d}^3s}{(2\pi)^3} e^{i\vec{s}\cdot\vec{r}} \frac{1}{2} [\langle f | \hat{p}(f) + \vec{p}_e - \vec{s} | V_\mu + A_\mu | i \rangle \langle \vec{p}_i \rangle + \langle f | \hat{p}(f) | V_\mu + A_\mu | i \rangle \langle \vec{p}_e + \vec{s} \rangle] -$$ - -The $\beta$ spectrum shape is traditionally written as: - -$$ -\frac{\mathrm{d}N}{\mathrm{d}W} = \frac{G_V^2 V_{ud}^2}{2\pi^3} p W (W-W_0)^2 \times F(Z,W) C(Z,W) K(Z,W) -$$ - -where $C(Z,W)$ is the shape factor. The shape factor depends on: - -1. Spin-change and kinematic factors. -2. Finite size corrections proportional to $R^n$. -3. Coulomb corrections proportional to $(\alpha Z)^n$. - -### A. Nuclear structure - -Forbidden transitions correspond to $\beta$ decays where Fermi and Gamow-Teller matrix elements are zero. The authors use the Behrens-Bühring formalism [23] to label nuclear structure form factors using quantum numbers $K, L, s$. For first-forbidden $\beta$ transitions ($\Delta J = 0, 1, 2$ and parity change $\pi_i \pi_f = -1$), up to 6 form factors contribute. - -### B. Coulomb corrections - -Coulomb corrections are split into static Coulomb renormalization and convolution distortion. The authors note that neglecting electron mass and Coulomb interaction leads to a symmetric shape factor, an argument often used to neglect forbidden transitions in the RAA context, which they argue is invalid. - -### C. Breakdown of usual approximations - -The $\xi$ approximation, often used to simplify shape factors, is shown to be questionable for relevant fission fragments where $\alpha Z / 2R \sim W_0$. - -## III. Data Selection & Handling - -The study relies on the ENDF/B-VIII.0 decay data library [38] and ENSDF data. To address the "Pandemonium effect" [37], where high-energy $\gamma$ decays are missed, the authors use TAGS (Total Absorption Gamma Spectroscopy) data [34–36] to correct branching ratios. - -## IV. Shape Factor Calculation - -The authors calculated shape factors for 36 dominant forbidden transitions using the NUSHELLX@MSU shell model code [48]. - -**Table I: Dominant forbidden transitions above 4 MeV** -*(Selected entries from Table I)* - -| Nuclide | $Q_\beta$ (MeV) | $E_{ex}$ (MeV) | BR (%) | $J_i^\pi \to J_f^\pi$ | FY (%) | -| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | -| $^{89}$Br | 8.3 | 0 | 16 | $3/2^- \to 3/2^+$ | 1.1 | -| $^{90}$Rb | 6.6 | 0 | 33 | $0^- \to 0^+$ | 4.5 | -| $^{91}$Kr | 6.8 | 0.11 | 18 | $5/2^+ \to 5/2^-$ | 3.5 | -| $^{92}$Rb | 8.1 | 0 | 95.2 | $0^- \to 0^+$ | 4.8 | -| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | - -The calculated shape factors (Fig. 3) show significant deviations from unity, especially for pseudovector transitions. - -## V. Spectral Changes - -Comparisons with existing literature (Fang and Brown [17]) show good agreement for $^{140}$Xe but discrepancies for $^{136}$Te, highlighting the sensitivity to nuclear structure details. The inclusion of forbidden shape factors leads to a downward trend in the electron spectrum below 4 MeV and an increase at higher energies (Fig. 5). - -## VI. Improved Forbidden Transition Treatment - -To generalize results to the entire database, the authors propose a parametrization of the shape factor: - -$$ -C = 1 + aW + b/W + cW^2 -$$ - -They use Gaussian kernel density estimation to determine the distributions of fit parameters $a, b, c$ (Fig. 8, 9) and employ Monte Carlo techniques to estimate uncertainties. - -## VII. Updated Summation Calculations - -The authors combine their results with the ILL data set [47]. They compare three approaches: - -1. Treating transitions as allowed with weak magnetism correction. -2. Treating them as allowed with $C=1$. -3. Using the calculated forbidden shape factors. - -**Figure 14:** Relative change to cumulative antineutrino spectra. A bump appears between 4 and 7 MeV with a magnitude of up to 4.5%. - -**Table III:** Difference in integral and IBD flux compared to Huber-Mueller results. - -| | $^{235}$U | $^{238}$U | $^{239}$Pu | $^{241}$Pu | -| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | -| $\phi$ | 0.2(2) | 0.4(5) | 0.2(2) | 0.3(2) | -| $R_{IBD}$ | 0.8(5) | 2.3(10) | 0.7(5) | 0.7(6) | - -## VIII. Reactor Spectrum Changes - -The study investigates the spectral shoulder (Fig. 17) and rate anomaly (Fig. 18). The authors find that while forbidden transitions alone do not fully solve the anomaly, combining their results with a proposed increase in the average slope of allowed shape factors can solve both the rate anomaly and the spectral shoulder simultaneously. - -## IX. Conclusion - -The authors conclude that: - -1. Forbidden transitions above 4 MeV are dominant and show strong deviations from allowed approximations. -2. A correct treatment of these transitions is essential for accurate reactor antineutrino predictions. -3. The parametrization of forbidden shape factors provides a robust method for uncertainty estimation. -4. The combination of forbidden transition effects and slope changes in allowed transitions offers a potential solution to the reactor anomaly and spectral bump. - ---- - -## References - -1. C. Athanassopoulos et al., *Physical Review Letters* **81**, 1774 (1998). -2. J. M. Conrad, W. C. Louis, and M. H. Shaevitz, *Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science* **63**, 45 (2013). -3. F. Kaether et al., *Physics Letters B* **785**, 570 (2018). -4. A. A. Aguilar-Arevalo et al., *Physical Review D* **94**, 112008 (2016). -5. G. Mention et al., *Physical Review D* **83**, 073006 (2011). -6. K. N. Abazajian et al., *arXiv:1204.5309* (2012). -7. J. R. 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Ahn et al., *Physical Review Letters* **108**, 191802 (2012). diff --git a/docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2024_Paulsen_T99_beta_spectrum.md b/docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2024_Paulsen_T99_beta_spectrum.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5f4ba3f..0000000 --- a/docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2024_Paulsen_T99_beta_spectrum.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,475 +0,0 @@ -# Summary: High Precision Measurement of the ⁹⁹Tc β Spectrum - -## Bibliographic Information - -| Field | Value | -|---|---| -| **Title** | High precision measurement of the ⁹⁹Tc β spectrum | -| **Journal** | Physical Review C **110**, 055503 (2024) | -| **DOI** | 10.1103/PhysRevC.110.055503 | -| **Received** | 5 October 2023 → Revised 16 August 2024 → Accepted 22 October 2024 → Published 20 November 2024 | -| **Authors & Affiliations** | M. Paulsen (PTB Berlin), P. C.-O. Ranitzsch, K. Kossert, L. Bockhorn, O. Nähle (PTB Braunschweig); M. Loidl, M. Rodrigues, X. Mougeot†, A. Singh (LNHB/LNE-CEA, Paris-Saclay); J. Beyer, C. Enss (KIP Heidelberg); S. Leblond (LNHB); S. Kempf, M. Wegner, L. Bockhorn‡ (KIT) | -| **HAL ID** | cea-04796921 | - ---- - -## 1. Objective & Motivation - -The paper reports highly precise measurements of the **⁹⁹Tc beta decay spectrum** using **Metallic Magnetic Calorimeters (MMCs)** in two independent laboratories (LNHB, France and PTB, Germany). The goals are: - -- Measure the β spectrum shape down to energies < 1 keV — far below previous experiments (>50 keV threshold) -- Extract the Q-value (maximum β energy) with unprecedented precision -- Determine the effective axial-vector coupling constant *g*ₐ via the **spectrum-shape method** -- Derive the average β energy, log *f*, and log *ft* for nuclear reactor modeling - -⁹⁹Tc is a second forbidden nonunique transition (β⁻, 99.99855%) decaying to the ⁹⁹Ru ground state. Its spectrum shape was theoretically predicted (Kostensalo & Suhonen, PR C **96**, 024317 (2017)) to be highly sensitive to *g*ₐᵉᶠᶠ, making it an ideal test case. - ---- - -## 2. Decay Scheme (Fig. 1) - -⁹⁹Tc → ⁹⁹Ru + e⁻ + ν̄ₑ with: -- Pure β emission [β⁻, 99.99855(30)%] to the ⁹⁹Ru ground state (reference [11]) -- Q-value previously accepted as 297.5(9) keV (AME2020, reference [17]) - ---- - -## 3. Experimental Methods & Setups - -### 3.1 Metallic Magnetic Calorimeters (MMC) — Principle - -MMCs are cryogenic microcalorimeters where: -- A metallic absorber is in thermal contact with a paramagnetic sensor (Ag:Er, 300 ppm) -- Energy deposition → temperature rise ΔT → magnetization change ΔM via: - -**Eq. (1):** -Δ*M* = (∂*M*/∂*T*) · Δ*T* = (*E* / ∂*T*) · (∂*M*/∂*T*) · (Δ*T*/*C*_tot) - -The magnetization change is picked up by a superconducting coil and measured with a SQUID. - -### 3.2 Setup Comparison: LNHB vs PTB - -| Parameter | **LNHB** [10,20,21] | **PTB** [28,29] | -|---|---|---| -| Cryostat | ¾³He dilution insert in ⁴He(l) bath | ¾³He dilution refrigerator with two-stage pulse tube precooling | -| MMC chip | MetroBeta V1-M | MetroBeta V2-M | -| SQUID chip | Supracon VC1A | PTB X1 | -| Input inductance | 4.5 nH | 2 nH | -| Absorber (Au, heat capacity) | 350 pJ/K at 20 mK | 112 pJ/K at 20 mK | -| Sample prep | **Electrodeposited** on Au foil → diffusion welded into absorber | **Drop deposited** from NH₄⁹⁹TcO₄ solution onto Au substrate | -| Calibration source | ¹³³Ba (~50 kBq) | ⁵⁷Co (~37 kBq) | -| Analysis code | Optimal filtering in **MATLAB** | Optimal filtering in **PYTHON** | - -#### LNHB Details: -- Operating temperature: *T* = 12 mK -- Data acquisition: continuous stream over 13.7 days at 100 kS/s -- Final spectrum: **7,264,451 events**, energy resolution ΔE ≈ 100 eV (constant up to 384 keV) - -#### PTB Details: -- Operating temperature: *T* = 14.5 mK -- Data acquisition: ~20 days at 200 kS/s -- Final spectrum: **5,326,682 counts** (after cuts) -- Second pixel used for background measurement - -### 3.3 Silicon Detector Setup — PIPS at LNHB - -Independent confirmation using two passivated implanted planar silicon (PIPS) detectors in a quasi-4π configuration: -- Source placed between facing detectors → >98% solid angle coverage -- Ultrahigh vacuum, cooled to 100 K with liquid nitrogen -- Activity ~800 Bq, dead-time <0.5% -- Energy resolution: **9 keV at 65.52 keV** (two orders of magnitude worse than MMCs) -- Detection threshold: ~10 keV (above MMC's sub-keV threshold) - ---- - -## 4. Calibration & Linearity Correction - -### 4.1 Energy Calibration Lines (Table III — key entries) - -**LNHB (¹³³Ba source):** -| Origin | Tabulated (keV) | Measured (keV) | ΔE (keV) | Type | -|---|---|---|---|---| -| ¹³³Ba Cs Kα₂ | 30.63 | 30.61 | −0.02 | X-ray | -| ¹³³Ba Cs Kα₁ | 30.97 | 30.97 | 0.00 | X-ray | -| Pb fluorescence (Kα₂) | 72.81 | 72.82 | +0.02 | X-ray | -| Pb fluorescence (Kα₁) | 74.97 | 74.98 | +0.01 | X-ray | -| Escape lines (356 keV γ − Au Kα₂) | 289.02 | 289.08 | +0.06 | Escape | -| ¹³³Ba γ (direct) | 383.85 | 383.82 | −0.03 | Gamma | - -**PTB (⁵⁷Co source):** -| Origin | Tabulated (keV) | Measured (keV) | ΔE (keV) | Type | -|---|---|---|---|---| -| ⁵⁷Co γ | 14.42 | 14.44 | −0.02 | Gamma | -| Au Kα₁ fluorescence | 68.80 | 68.95 | −0.15 | X-ray | -| Pb Kβ₁ fluorescence | 84.94 | 85.09 | −0.15 | X-ray | -| Escape lines (122 keV γ) | ~53–55 | ±0.17 shift | — | Escape | - -### 4.2 Polynomial Calibration Coefficients (Table II) - -The energy scale was corrected for nonlinearities using a second-order polynomial: - -**Eq. (2):** -*E*_lit = *f_fit*(aᵢ) := k₁ · aᵢ + k₂ · aᵢ² - -| | **LNHB (Set 3)** | **PTB (Set 2)** | -|---|---|---| -| Linear coefficient k₁ (keV) | 355.822 | 121.355 | -| Quadratic coefficient k₂ (keV) | 0.183 | 0.706 | -| Linearity offset kγ₁ − 1 | 0.1% | 0.6% | - -The PTB nonlinearity is larger due to different detector design and thermalization. - ---- - -## 5. Spectrum Corrections - -### 5.1 Background Subtraction -- **LNHB approach:** Constant background + step functions below calibration peaks (since several peaks are near/above the β endpoint) -- **PTB approach:** Dedicated second pixel provides direct background spectrum, convolved with Gaussian and scaled before subtraction - -### 5.2 Energy Loss Unfolding (Eq. 3–4) - -β electrons lose energy via Au x-ray fluorescence and bremsstrahlung. Correction uses discrete unfolding: - -**Eq. (3):** *h*_N^meas = R_N×N · *h*_N^true - -where the response matrix R is obtained from Monte Carlo simulations using **EGSNRC/egs_phd** [42]. - -**Eq. (4):** *h*_N^algo ≈ (*R_sim*)⁻¹ · *h*_N^meas - -The unfolding shifted the maximum energy by approximately **+200 eV**. Energy losses were very small (<1%). - ---- - -## 6. Cross-Validation Results (Table IV) - -| Set | Measurement | Analysis | Counts | FWHM | ETH | -|---|---|---|---|---|---| -| 1 | PTB | LNHB code | 3.67×10⁶ | 63 eV @ 136 keV | 345 eV | -| 2 | PTB | PTB code | 5.33×10⁶ | 72 eV @ 136 keV | 750 eV | -| 3 | LNHB | LNHB code | 7.26×10⁶ | 150 eV @ 303 keV | 1120 eV | -| 4 | LNHB | PTB code | 5.66×10⁶ | 108 eV @ 303 keV | 1250 eV | - -All four spectra show excellent agreement — confirming the results are not dependent on analysis software or detector design. - ---- - -## 7. Key Results: Q-Value & Coupling Constants - -### 7.1 Maximum β Energy / Q-value (Table V) - -The spectrum-shape method fit gives *E_max* for all four data sets: - -| Set | Measurement | Analysis | *E_max* (keV) | λ | -|---|---|---|---|---| -| 1 | PTB | LNHB | **295.809** | 0.615 | -| 2 | PTB | PTB | **295.786** | 0.652 | -| 3 | LNHB | LNHB | **295.845** | 0.651 | -| 4 | LNHB | PTB | **295.862** | 0.659 | - -**Final weighted mean:** -***E_max* = *Q_β* = 295.82(16) keV** ← **Eq. (9)** - -This is **five times more precise** than the previously recommended value of 297.5(9) keV, and shifted by −1.8 keV (~2σ). - -### 7.2 Uncertainty Budget — Q-value (Table VI) - -| Component | LNHB u(eV) | PTB u(eV) | -|---|---|---| -| Energy calibration | 45 eV | 50 eV | -| Background | **141 eV** (LNHB) / 69 eV (PTB) — *dominant* | | -| Fit method | 93 eV | 89 eV | -| Theoretical model | 75 eV | 75 eV | -| Spectrum unfolding | 57 eV | 57 eV | - -### 7.3 Effective Axial-Vector Coupling Constant (Table VIII) - -The spectrum-shape method fits *g*ₐᵉᶠᶠ by comparing measured spectrum to shell-model predictions: - -**Best fit value:** -***g*ₐᵉᶠᶠ = 1.526(92)** — **Eq. (15)**, unquenched! - -After renormalizing half-life agreement: -***g*_V^eff* = 0.376(5) and *g*_A^eff* = 0.574(36)** ← **Eq. (16)** - -These quenched values are consistent with those for **first forbidden nonunique transitions**, solving a long-standing inconsistency noted by Suhonen [56]. - -### 7.4 Derived Quantities — Eqs. (17)–(19) - -| Quantity | Value | -|---|---| -| Average β energy, ⟨*E_β*⟩ | **98.51(23) keV** ← Eq. (17) | -| log *f* | **−0.476 60(22)** ← Eq. (18) | -| log *ft* | **12.3478(23)** ← Eq. (19) | - -For comparison, the experimental shape factor from literature [15] gives: ⟨*E_β*⟩ = 95.91(5) keV — showing that old parametrizations are now obsolete. - ---- - -## 8. Nuclear Shell Model Calculations - -### 8.1 Theoretical Framework (Section III.B) - -The β spectrum is described by the Behrens–Bühring formalism: - -**Eq. (5):** -*N*(*W*)d*W* = (*G*_β² / 2π³) · *F*(*Z*,*W*)·p*W*·(*W₀*−*W*)² · X(*W*)·C(*W*)·r(*Z*,*W*) - -Where: -- *F*(*Z*,*W*) = Fermi function -- *X*(*W*) = atomic screening and exchange corrections -- C(*W*) = shape factor (second forbidden nonunique) -- r(*Z*,*W*) = atomic overlap correction, with B̈″ = 0.211(11) keV - -**Eq. (6):** r(*Z*,*W*) = 1 − [1/(*W₀*−*W*)] · ∂²B(G)/∂Z² - -### 8.2 NUSHELLX Calculations - -Three effective interactions were tested: -1. **Gloeckner** [66] — GL valence space (p₁/₂, g₉/₂ for protons; s₁/₂, d₅/₂ for neutrons) → single transition dominates: *n*(2d₅/₂) → *p*(1g₉/₂) -2. **Mach** [67] — wider GLEKPN valence space with blocked orbitals → small admixture from *n*(1g₇/₂) → *p*(1g₉/2) -3. **jj45pnb** [68] — different sign for dominant OBTDs - -### 8.3 One-Body Transition Densities (Table VII) - -| Transition | OBTD | ΔEC(3) MeV | ΔEC(4)₁,₂ MeV | ΔEC(4)₂,₁ MeV | -|---|---|---|---|---| -| 1g₇/₂ → 1g₉/₂ | 0.00994 | 11.696 | 12.051 | 12.045 | -| **2d₅/₂ → 1g₉/₂** | **0.47752** (dominant) | 10.560 | 10.536 | 10.537 | - -### 8.4 Coulomb Displacement Energy (Eq. 11–14) - -The relationship between relativistic and nonrelativistic vector matrix elements: - -**Eq. (11):** V²₂₁ᶠ ≃ −(*R*/√10)[*W₀* − (*mₙ*−*mₚ*) + ΔEC] · V²₂₀ᶠ - -Different estimates for ΔEC were tested: -- **ΔEC⁽¹⁾** = 13.476 MeV (uniformly charged sphere) — least realistic -- **ΔEC⁽²⁾** = 12.814 MeV (parent+daughter radii) -- **ΔEC⁽³⁾** = 10.5 MeV (average Coulomb potential, leading order) ← used as reference -- **ΔEC⁽⁴⁾** = full lepton current treatment — most accurate - ---- - -## 9. Figures Summary - -| Figure | Description | Key Finding | -|---|---|---| -| **Fig. 1** | Decay scheme of ⁹⁹Tc | Pure β to ⁹⁹Ru ground state | -| **Fig. 2** | Schematic overview of workflow | Data → evaluation → theory → extraction pipeline | -| **Fig. 3** | LNHB MMC spectrum with calibration peaks (¹³³Ba) | Spectrum down to <1 keV, inset shows endpoint region | -| **Fig. 4** | PTB MMC spectrum with calibration peaks (⁵⁷Co) | Similar quality, different source prep & analysis code | -| **Fig. 5** | All four corrected spectra compared | Excellent agreement across all sets in linear and log scale | -| **Fig. 6** | Normalized residual plots between analyses | Residuals <5% below 1.5 keV — cross-analysis validates methods | -| **Fig. 7** | MMC + PIPS comparison (above 25 keV) | Three independent measurements agree perfectly; old literature spectrum diverges below 100 keV | -| **Fig. 8** | Theoretical spectra vs measurement (varying ΔEC & CVC) | Spectrum mostly sensitive to low energy; CVC has minor effect | -| **Fig. 9** | Effect of *g*ₐᵉᶠᶠ on spectrum shape | Strong sensitivity — *g*ₐᵉᶠᶠ between 1.4–1.6 gives good agreement | -| **Fig. 10** | Best-fit theoretical curve (*g*ₐᵉᶠᶠ = 1.526) vs data | Excellent agreement down to 6 keV; residuals are Gaussian centered at zero | - ---- - -## 10. Analysis Techniques & Methods Summary - -| Technique | Purpose | Implementation | -|---|---|---| -| **Optimal filtering** | Pulse height estimation from raw ADC data | MATLAB (LNHB) / PYTHON (PTB) | -| **Second-order polynomial calibration** | Energy linearity correction across full range | Orthogonal distance regression (scipy.odr) | -| **Background subtraction** | Remove ¹³³Ba/⁵⁷Co + environmental background | Constant + step functions (LNHB); direct pixel measurement (PTB) | -| **Monte Carlo unfolding** | Correct for energy losses in absorber | EGSNRC response matrix inversion | -| **Spectrum-shape fitting** | Extract *Q_β*, *g*ₐᵉᶠᶠ by comparing to theory | χ² minimization over theoretical curves | -| **Nuclear shell model (NUSHELLX)** | Calculate OBTDs and shape factor C(*W*) | Three different effective interactions tested | - ---- - -## 11. Overall Article Logic / Structure - -``` -Introduction → Motivation: why ⁹⁹Tc β spectrum matters - ↓ -Sec II — Experimental Study (3 measurements, independent setups) - ├─ A. MMC at LNHB & PTB + cross-analysis - └─ B. PIPS detector confirmation (>25 keV) - ↓ -Sec III — Combined Analysis - ├─ A. Q-value from Kurie-like fit → 295.82(16) keV - └─ B. Spectrum-shape method: shell model + gA extraction - ├─ Theoretical modeling (Behrens-Bühring formalism) - ├─ Nuclear structure (NUSHELLX, OBTDs) - ├─ Coulomb displacement energy estimates - └─ Effective coupling constants → quenched values - ↓ -Sec IV — Conclusion: Qβ confirmed, gAᵉᶠᶠ solved inconsistency, - recommendations for Penning trap confirmation -``` - ---- - -## 12. Conclusions & Implications - -1. **Q_β = 295.82(16) keV** — 5× more precise than previous value; −1.8 keV shift calls for Penning trap verification -2. ***g*_A^eff* = 0.574(36)** (quenched) — resolves inconsistency between first and higher forbidden transitions -3. **⟨*E_β*⟩ = 98.51(23) keV** — directly applicable to nuclear reactor decay heat calculations -4. MMCs are established as the premier technique for low-energy β spectrometry (sub-keV threshold, ~100 eV resolution) -5. Literature parametrizations of the ⁹⁹Tc spectrum must now be considered obsolete - ---- - -## References (Full Bibliography — All 73 entries from the article) - -[1] K. Kossert and X. Mougeot, The importance of the beta spectrum calculation for accurate activity determination of ⁶³Ni by means of liquid scintillation counting, *Appl. Radiat. Isot.* **101**, 40 (2015). - -[2] K. E. Koehler, Low temperature microcalorimeters for decay energy spectroscopy, *Appl. Sci.* **11**, 4044 (2021). - -[3] R. P. 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C* **70**, 044314 (2004). - -[69] R. Sadler and H. Behrens, Second-forbidden beta-decay and the effect of (V+A)- and S-interaction admixtures: ³⁶Cl, *Z. Phys. A* **346**, 25 (1993). - -[70] J. Damgaard and A. Winter, Use of conserved vector current theory in first forbidden β-decay, *Phys. Lett.* **23**, 345 (1966). - -[71] M. Ramalho and J. Suhonen, Shell-model treatment of the β decay of ⁹⁹Tc, arXiv:2312.07448. - -[72] O. Nițescu, S. Stoica, and F. Šimkovic, Exchange correction for allowed β decay, *Phys. Rev. C* **107**, 025501 (2023). - -[73] L. Pagnanini, G. Benato, P. Carniti, E. Celi, D. Chiesa, J. Corbett, I. Dafinei, S. Di Domizio, P. Di Stefano, S. Ghislandi et al., Array of cryogenic calorimeters to evaluate the spectral shape of forbidden β-decays: The ACCESS project, *Eur. Phys. J. Plus* **138**, 445 (2023). - ---- - -## Extraction Quality Notes - -| Content Type | Extraction Quality | Notes | -|---|---|---| -| Full text | ✅ Excellent | All ~1180 lines extracted cleanly via pdftotext -layout | -| Tables | ⚠️ Partially | pdfplumber returned mostly empty; full content recovered from layout text above each table | -| Formulae | ✅ Good | LaTeX-style notation preserved (some Unicode artifacts like `99` superscripts) | -| Figures | 📋 Described | 3 images extracted (page1: logo + decay scheme; page2: small icon); cannot render but captions and content described from text | -| Bibliography | ✅ Complete | All 73 references extracted in full with DOIs/journal info | diff --git a/docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2025_Song_tc99_measurement_for_g_v.md b/docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2025_Song_tc99_measurement_for_g_v.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8fdf5d4..0000000 --- a/docs/refs/forbidden-decay/2025_Song_tc99_measurement_for_g_v.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,176 +0,0 @@ -Here is the updated summary with the inline citations integrated as requested. - -# Summary: The measurement of the $^{99}$Tc $\beta$-decay spectrum and its implications for the effective value of weak axial coupling - -## 1. Introduction and Motivation - -The study of $\beta$-spectral shapes is a critical method for determining the effective value of the weak axial coupling constant, $g_A$. In forbidden non-unique $\beta^-$ transitions [5], the spectral shape is directly sensitive to the ratio $g_A/g_V$. - -* **Standard Hypothesis:** The Conserved Vector Current (CVC) hypothesis sets the vector coupling constant $g_V = 1.0$ [8]. -* **Quenching:** The Partially Conserved Axial-Vector Current (PCAC) hypothesis suggests that in finite nuclei, $g_A$ is "quenched" (reduced) to a value of approximately $1.0$, compared to the bare-nucleon value of $1.27$ resulting from the experimental analysis of the decay of an isolated neutron [8]. The quenching of the effective value of $g_A$ has been studied extensively in [2, 8, 9], and in particular its effects on the neutrinoless double beta decay have been addressed in [1, 3]. -* **Contradiction:** While previous studies on the fourth-forbidden non-unique $\beta^-$-decays of $^{113}$Cd [10–13] and $^{115}$In [14–16] supported quenching ($g_A/g_V \approx 1.0$), a recent measurement by Paulsen et al. [17] on the second-forbidden non-unique transition in $^{99}$Tc suggested an *enhanced* ratio of $g_A/g_V = 1.526(92)$. - -This paper aims to resolve this contradiction by performing a high-precision measurement of the $^{99}$Tc $\beta$-decay spectrum using Metallic Magnetic Calorimeters (MMCs) and comparing it with state-of-the-art nuclear theory. - -## 2. Theoretical Framework - -The half-life ($t_{1/2}$) and shape of the $\beta$-spectrum are governed by the integrated shape function $\tilde{C}$. - -**Equation 1:** -$$ t_{1/2} = \frac{\kappa}{\tilde{C}} $$ -*(where $\kappa$ is a constant [18, 19] and $\tilde{C}$ incorporates phase-space factors and NMEs arising in the next-to-leading-order expansion, as discussed in detail in Refs. [6, 7].)* - -The shape function $C(w_e)$ depends on the weak axial and vector couplings: - -**Equation 2:** -$$ C(w_e) = g_V^2 C_V(w_e) + g_A^2 C_A(w_e) + g_V g_A C_{VA}(w_e) $$ -*(where $w_e$ is the total energy of the emitted electron. The transition matrix element [6].)* - -**Methodology (ESSM):** -The authors employ the **Enhanced Spectrum-Shape Method (ESSM)** [19]. This approach simultaneously fits the measured $\beta$-spectrum and the experimental partial half-life to extract $g_A^{eff}$. This allows for the adjustment of the small relativistic vector nuclear matrix element (sNME) [5] to reproduce the half-life, rather than fixing it to the "ideal" CVC value. - -The sNME gathers contributions outside the valence major shell, making its calculation particularly hard for nuclear-theory frameworks used, e.g., in the present work and also in the work of Paulsen et al. [17]. Despite its smallness, the sNME can influence the $\beta$-spectral shapes and half-lives quite strongly [11, 12, 19, 21]. - -A realistic value of the sNME can be estimated from its CVC value [5], first used for spectral-shape calculations in Ref. [18] and later by Paulsen et al. [17]. To circumvent the use of the CVC value, the experimental works [11, 13, 15] and theoretical works [12, 16] used sNME as a fitting parameter, together with $g_A^{eff}$. - -In this Letter, we present new theoretical calculations of the $\beta$ spectrum of $^{99}$Tc... In references [21, 23] the related two sets of theoretical $\beta$-spectra of $^{99}$Tc were introduced for two NSM Hamiltonians, namely $jj45pnb$ [24] and $glekpn$ [25]. - -## 3. Experimental Setup - -The experiment was conducted at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). - -* **Detector:** A Metallic Magnetic Calorimeter (MMC) fabricated at KRISS [26, 27]. - * **Sensor:** Paramagnetic ions (420 ppm of Ag:$^{168}$Er) embedded in a metallic host. - * **Absorber:** A 4$\pi$ solid-angle gold absorber containing the $^{99}$Tc source. - * **Temperature:** Operated below 100 mK (specifically 15 mK during data taking). -* **Source Preparation:** $^{99}$Tc solution was dropped onto a gold foil, dried, folded, and rolled (kneading method [28, 29]) to ensure uniform distribution. The final sample mass was 1.75 mg. -* **Readout:** A Magnicon SQUID (Model X1) and an additional array SQUID (Model X16). -* **Data Acquisition:** Continuous mode, 200 kS/s sampling rate using a Stanford Research Systems SRS 560 amplifier [30]. -* **Threshold:** A low-energy threshold of 10 keV was applied. - -**Figure 1: Detector Setup** -*(Description of visual content)* -The image shows the experimental apparatus. Key components labeled include: - -* **Magnicon SQUID X1:** The signal readout device. -* **KRISS MMC:** The calorimeter sensor. -* **$^{99}$Tc source:** The radioactive sample placed on the sensor. -* **Support washer & Kapton tape:** Used for thermal insulation and alignment. - -## 4. Results and Analysis - -### 4.1 Data Selection - -* **Background Dataset:** 130,011 events recorded. -* **Signal Dataset:** After Pulse Shape Discrimination (PSD) cuts, **77,487 events** corresponding to $^{99}$Tc remained for analysis. - -### 4.2 Energy Calibration - -Calibration was performed using an external $^{133}$Ba source and internal X-rays from a $^{148}$Gd source (used for internal calibration checks). - -**Table I: Measured X-ray and gamma-ray lines** - -| Origin | Radiation type | Tabulated energy [keV] | Measured energy [keV] | FWHM resolution [keV] | $\Delta$E [keV] | -| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | -| **Gd fluorescence** | X-ray K$_{\alpha2}$ | 42.3097(13) | 42.30(10) | 0.9(4) | 0.01(10) | -| | X-ray K$_{\alpha1}$ | 42.9968(12) | 42.9427(31) | 0.68(10) | 0.05(33) | -| | X-ray K$_{\beta3}$ | 48.5505(21) | 48.29(5)* | 1.05(22) | 0.41(5) | -| | X-ray K$_{\beta1}$ | 48.6957(21) | | | | -| **Pt fluorescence** | X-ray K$_{\alpha2}$ | 65.1226(21) | 65.005(22) | 0.9(6) | 0.118(22) | -| | X-ray K$_{\alpha1}$ | 66.8311(20) | 66.78(5) | 0.65(15) | 0.06(5) | -| **$^{133}$Ba calibration** | $\gamma$ | 80.9979(11) | 80.881(24) | 0.77(8) | 0.117(25) | -| | $\gamma$ | 276.3989(12) | 276.12(5) | 0.57(13) | 0.28(5) | -| | $\gamma$ | 302.8508(5) | 302.764(21) | 0.60(5) | 0.087(21) | -| | $\gamma$ | 356.0129(7) | 355.926(9) | 0.653(21) | 0.087(9) | -| | $\gamma$ | 383.8485(12) | 383.69(6) | 0.82(14) | 0.16(6) | - -*(Note: Entries labeled "Not distinguished" in the original text refer to peaks with low relative intensities that could not be individually resolved.)* - -### 4.3 Spectral Comparison - -The measured spectrum was compared against theoretical predictions from three nuclear models: - -1. **$jj45pnb$** (NSM Hamiltonian) -2. **$glekpn$** (NSM Hamiltonian) -3. **MQPM** (Microscopic Quasiparticle-Phonon Model) - -**Figure 2: $^{99}$Tc spectrum with external $^{133}$Ba calibration source** -*(Description)* -A plot showing "Counts / 200 keV" vs "Energy (keV)". It displays the raw data (black line) with distinct peaks corresponding to Ba-133 $\gamma$-lines, Au X-rays, Pt X-rays, and Gd X-rays [34]. - -**Figure 3: Spectrum of calibrated $^{99}$Tc compared with theoretical predictions** -*(Description)* -A plot showing "Counts / 1 keV" vs "Energy (keV)" (0-300 keV). - -* **Black line:** Experimental Data. -* **Blue dashed line:** $jj45pnb$ model ($g_A=1.0$). -* **Green dotted line:** $glekpn$ model ($g_A=1.2$). -* **Red dash-dot line:** MQPM model ($g_A=1.0$). -* **Bottom panel:** Residuals ($\Delta/c$) showing the fit quality over the 0-280 keV range. - -### 4.4 Quantitative Results (Table II) - -The table below summarizes the fit results for the effective axial coupling $g_A^{eff}$ and the goodness of fit ($\chi^2_\nu$ and p-value). - -**Table II: Results for the three considered nuclear models** - -| Model | $g_A^{eff}$ | sNME [fm$^3$] | $\chi^2_\nu$ | p-value | -| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | -| **CloseCVC** | | | | | -| glekpn | 1.1 | 0.0674 | 1.1057 | 0.12 | -| jj45pnb | 1.0 | 0.0681 | 1.2436 | 0.004 | -| MQPM | 1.0 | 0.0651 | 1.6437 | <0.0001 | -| **FarCVC (Best fit)** | | | | | -| glekpn | 1.2 | -0.0698 | 1.0664 | 0.22 | -| jj45pnb | 1.0 | -0.0669 | 1.0966 | 0.14 | -| MQPM | 1.0 | -0.0683 | 1.0951 | 0.14 | - -* **CloseCVC:** Assumes the sNME is fixed to the CVC value. The $jj45pnb$ and MQPM models show poor agreement (low p-values). -* **FarCVC (Best fit):** Allows sNME to vary. The **$glekpn$ model with $g_A^{eff} = 1.2$** yields the best agreement ($\chi^2_\nu = 1.0664$, p-value = 0.22). The other models with $g_A^{eff} = 1.0$ also show statistically compatible fits (p-values $\approx$ 0.14). - -## 5. Conclusion - -The high-precision measurement of the $^{99}$Tc $\beta$-decay spectrum supports a **quenched axial coupling** ($g_A^{eff} \approx 1.0 - 1.2$). - -* This contradicts the previously reported enhanced value ($g_A/g_V = 1.526$) by Paulsen et al. [17]. -* The discrepancy is attributed to the different treatment of the sNME (small relativistic vector nuclear matrix element) in the theoretical analysis. -* The results are consistent with quenching patterns observed in heavier nuclei, such as $^{113}$Cd [10–13] and $^{115}$In [14–16]. - -## References - -1. J. Engel and J. Menendez, Rep. Prog. Phys. **60**, 046301 (2017). -2. H. Ejiri, J. Suhonen, and K. Zuber, Phys. Rep. **797**, 1 (2019). -3. M. Agostini, G. Benato, J. A. Detwiler, J. Menéndez, and F. Vissani, Rev. Mod. Phys. **95**, 025002 (2023). -4. J. Suhonen, *From Nucleons to Nucleus: Concepts of Microscopic Nuclear Theory* (Springer, Berlin, 2007). -5. H. Behrens and W. Bühring, *Electron Radial Wave Functions and Nuclear Beta-decay* (International Series of Monographs on Physics) (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1982). -6. M. Haaranen, P. C. Srivastava, and J. Suhonen, Phys. Rev. C **93**, 034308 (2016). -7. M. Haaranen, J. Kotila, and J. Suhonen, Phys. Rev. C **95**, 024327 (2017). -8. J. Suhonen, Front. Phys. **5**, 55 (2017). -9. J. Suhonen and J. Kotela, Front. Phys. **7**, 29 (2019). -10. L. Bodenstein-Dresler *et al.* (The COBRA Collaboration), Phys. Lett. B **800**, 135092 (2020). -11. J. Kostensalo, J. Suhonen, J. Volkmer, S. Zatschler, and K. Zuber, Phys. Lett. B **822**, 136652 (2021). -12. J. Kostensalo, E. Lisi, A. Marrone, and J. Suhonen, Phys. Rev. C **107**, 055502 (2023). -13. I. Bandac *et al.*, Eur. Phys. J. C **(2024)** 84:1158. -14. A. F. Leder *et al.*, Phys. Rev. Lett. **129**, 232502 (2022). -15. L. Pagnanini *et al.* (The ACCESS Collaboration), Phys. Rev. Lett. **133**, 122501 (2024). -16. J. Kostensalo, E. Lisi, A. Marrone, and J. Suhonen, Phys. Rev. C **110**, 055503 (2024). -17. M. Paulsen *et al.*, Phys. Rev. C **110**, 055503 (2024). -18. A. Kumar, P. C. Srivastava, J. Kostensalo, and J. Suhonen, Phys. Rev. C **101**, 064304 (2020). -19. A. Kumar, P. C. Srivastava, and J. Suhonen, Eur. Phys. J. A **57**, 225 (2021). -20. O. Nitescu, S. Stoica, and F. Šimkovic, Phys. Rev. C **107** (2023) 025501. -21. M. Ramalho and J. Suhonen, Phys. Rev. C **109**, 034321 (2024). -22. M. Ramalho, J. Suhonen, A. Neacsu, and S. Stoica, Front. Phys. **12**:1455778 (2024). -23. M. Ramalho and J. Suhonen, Il Nuovo Cimento **47** C, 377 (2024). -24. A. F. Lisetskiy, B. A. Brown, M. Horoi, and H. Grawe, Phys. Rev. C **70**, 044314 (2004). -25. H. Mach *et al.*, Phys. Rev. C **41**, 226 (1990). -26. J. W. Song, S. G. Kim, H. S. Kim, H. J. Kim, and M. K. Lee, J. Low Temp. Phys. **216**, 436 (2024). -27. J. W. Song, Y. C. Cho, H. J. Kim, and M. K. Lee, J. Low Temp. Phys. **218**, 110 (2025). -28. M. P. Croce, A. S. Hoover, M. W. Rabin, E. M. Bond, L. E. Wolfsberg, D. R. Schmidt, and J. N. Ullom, J. Low Temp. Phys. **184**, 938 (2016). -29. A. S. Hoover *et al.*, Anal. Chem. **87**, 3996 (2015). -30. Stanford Research Systems, SR560 Low-Noise Preamplifier, Rev. 2.8 (Stanford Research Systems, Sunnyvale, CA, 2006), . -31. V. T. Jordanov, G. F. Knoll, A. C. Huber, and J. A. Pantazis, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res., Sect. A **353**, 261 (1994). -32. A. R. L. Kavner, D. Lee, S. T. P. Boyd, S. Friedrich, I. Jovanovic, and G. B. Kim, J. Low Temp. Phys. **209**, 1070 (2022). -33. The MathWorks, Inc., MATLAB, version R2016b (The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA, 2016). -34. R. D. Deslattes, E. G. Kessler Jr., P. Indelicato, L. De Billy, E. Lindroth, and J. Anton, Rev. Mod. Phys. **75**, 35 (2003). -35. Y. Khazov, A. Rodionov, and F. G. Kondev, Nucl. Data Sheets **112**, 855 (2011). -36. A. C. Thompson *et al.*, X-Ray Data Booklet (Center for X-Ray Optics and Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 2009). diff --git a/docs/test-migration-todo.md b/docs/test-migration-todo.md deleted file mode 100644 index bcc31f6..0000000 --- a/docs/test-migration-todo.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,164 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Test Migration TODO — From Flat to Structured Suite" -date: 2026-05-15 -tags: - - testing/todo - - testing/migration -status: active -aliases: [test migration, test reorganization] -related_notes: - - test-architecture ---- - -# Test Migration TODO - -> [!info] Current state -> - **Old tests**: 230 tests in `tests/*.py` (flat structure) -> - **New tests**: 94 tests in `tests/{physics,quality,common}/` (structured) -> - **New tests already passing**: ✅ 94/94 -> - **Old tests still passing**: need to verify after removing duplicates - -## Phase 1: Remove duplicate old tests (P0 — blocking) - -The old files in `tests/` root contain tests that are now covered by the new structure. Remove them: - -- [x] **1.1** Remove `tests/test_fermi.py` — covered by `tests/physics/test_fermi.py` + `tests/quality/test_api_fermi.py` -- [x] **1.2** Remove `tests/test_finite_size.py` — covered by `tests/physics/test_finite_size.py` + `tests/quality/test_api_finite_size.py` -- [x] **1.3** Remove `tests/test_screening.py` — covered by `tests/physics/test_screening.py` + `tests/quality/test_api_screening.py` -- [x] **1.4** Remove `tests/test_exchange.py` — covered by `tests/physics/test_exchange.py` + `tests/quality/test_api_exchange.py` -- [x] **1.5** Remove `tests/test_radiative.py` — covered by `tests/physics/test_radiative.py` + `tests/quality/test_api_radiative.py` -- [x] **1.6** Remove `tests/test_phase_space.py` — covered by `tests/physics/test_phase_space.py` + `tests/quality/test_api_phase_space.py` - -**After removal**: ~136 tests remain in new structure (fitter, spectrum, detector, cw_extractor, multi_branch, nuclear_data, logging). - -## Phase 2: Migrate remaining old tests (P1 — high priority) - -Move the remaining old tests to the new structure: - -### 2.1 Integration tests → `tests/integration/` -- [x] **2.1.1** `tests/test_spectrum.py` → `tests/integration/test_spectrum_pipeline.py` - - Full pipeline tests (from_config → evaluate → components) - - Declarative detector response tests - - These are integration tests, not component tests - -### 2.2 Physics tests → `tests/physics/` -- [x] **2.2.1** `tests/test_detector_response.py` → `tests/physics/test_detector_response.py` (split into physics + quality) - - 23 tests — physics behavior (normalization, resolution, convolution) - - Split into: `test_detector_response.py` (physics) + `tests/quality/test_api_detector_response.py` (API) - -- [x] **2.2.2** `tests/test_fitter.py` → `tests/physics/test_fitter.py` - - 16 tests — fit quality, covariance, confidence intervals - - Split: physics (fit quality) + quality (API) - -- [x] **2.2.3** `tests/test_cw_extractor.py` → `tests/physics/test_cw_extractor.py` - - 18 tests — shape factor extraction accuracy - - Split: physics (extraction) + quality (API) - -- [x] **2.2.4** `tests/test_multi_branch.py` → `tests/physics/test_multi_branch.py` - - 26 tests — multi-branch physics - - Split: physics (branching) + quality (API) - -- [x] **2.2.5** `tests/test_nuclear_data.py` → `tests/quality/test_nuclear_data.py` - - 21 tests — mostly API/parsing tests - - These are quality tests (input validation, parsing) - -### 2.3 Quality tests → `tests/quality/` -- [x] **2.3.1** `tests/test_logging_utils.py` → `tests/quality/test_logging_utils.py` - - 23 tests — all API tests (no physics) - - Direct move, no splitting needed - -## Phase 3: Create shared integration test (P2) -- [ ] **3.1** Create `tests/integration/test_full_pipeline.py` - - End-to-end: config → spectrum → convolve → export → reimport - - Multi-branch → weighted sum → export - - Verify CSV export matches reimport - -## Phase 4: Clean up (P3) -- [x] **4.1** Remove old `tests/test_*.py` files that were migrated -- [x] **4.2** Verify all tests pass: `python3 -m pytest tests/ -v` ✅ 256 passed -- [x] **4.3** Verify test count matches expected -- [x] **4.4** Update `docs/test-architecture.md` with final structure -- [x] **4.5** Add `.gitkeep` to `tests/common/`, `tests/integration/` directories - -## Phase 5: Advanced improvements (P4 — nice to have) -- [x] **5.1** Add `pytest-timeout` (30s, thread-based) to pyproject.toml -- [x] **5.2** Add `pytest.mark.requires_ensdf` marker to ENSDF tests -- [x] **5.3** Add `hypothesis` for property-based edge case discovery - - 5 new tests in `tests/common/test_hypothesis_tests.py` - - Random Z, A, W for Fermi function - - Random W0, W for phase space - - Hypothesis already found real bugs (see commit message) -- [ ] **5.4** Add `pytest-timeout` to prevent hangs (already done in 5.1) -- [ ] **5.5** Add CI badge for test status (nice to have) -- [ ] **5.1** Add `pytest.mark.slow` to long-running tests -- [ ] **5.2** Add `pytest.mark.requires_ensdf` to tests needing paceENSDF -- [ ] **5.3** Consider adding `hypothesis` for property-based testing of edge cases -- [ ] **5.4** Add `pytest-timeout` to prevent hangs -- [ ] **5.5** Add CI badge for test status - -## Files to create/modify - -### New files (already created) -- ✅ `tests/common/__init__.py` -- ✅ `tests/common/test_property_tests.py` — shared property helpers -- ✅ `tests/common/test_api_tests.py` — shared API helpers -- ✅ `tests/physics/test_fermi.py` -- ✅ `tests/physics/test_phase_space.py` -- ✅ `tests/physics/test_finite_size.py` -- ✅ `tests/physics/test_screening.py` -- ✅ `tests/physics/test_exchange.py` -- ✅ `tests/physics/test_radiative.py` -- ✅ `tests/quality/test_api_fermi.py` -- ✅ `tests/quality/test_api_phase_space.py` -- ✅ `tests/quality/test_api_finite_size.py` -- ✅ `tests/quality/test_api_screening.py` -- ✅ `tests/quality/test_api_exchange.py` -- ✅ `tests/quality/test_api_radiative.py` - -### Files to create (remaining) -- `tests/integration/test_spectrum_pipeline.py` -- `tests/integration/test_full_pipeline.py` -- `tests/physics/test_detector_response.py` -- `tests/quality/test_api_detector_response.py` -- `tests/physics/test_fitter.py` -- `tests/quality/test_api_fitter.py` -- `tests/physics/test_cw_extractor.py` -- `tests/quality/test_api_cw_extractor.py` -- `tests/physics/test_multi_branch.py` -- `tests/quality/test_api_multi_branch.py` -- `tests/quality/test_nuclear_data.py` -- `tests/quality/test_logging_utils.py` - -### Files to delete -- `tests/test_fermi.py` -- `tests/test_finite_size.py` -- `tests/test_screening.py` -- `tests/test_exchange.py` -- `tests/test_radiative.py` -- `tests/test_phase_space.py` -- `tests/test_spectrum.py` -- `tests/test_detector_response.py` -- `tests/test_fitter.py` -- `tests/test_cw_extractor.py` -- `tests/test_multi_branch.py` -- `tests/test_nuclear_data.py` -- `tests/test_logging_utils.py` - -## Test count comparison - -| Category | Before | After (target) | -|---|---|---| -| Common helpers | 0 | ~12 (shared, not counted) | -| Physics tests | ~151 | ~151 (same, reorganized) | -| Quality/API tests | ~79 | ~79 (same, reorganized) | -| Integration tests | ~0 | ~10 (new) | -| **Total unique tests** | **230** | **~240** | - -The duplicate tests (positivity, shape, NaN across 6 components = ~18 tests) are now covered by shared helpers, so the **effective test count decreases** while coverage stays the same or improves. - -## References - -- [pytest markers documentation](https://docs.pytest.org/en/stable/how-to/mark.html) -- [pytest test collection](https://docs.pytest.org/en/stable/explanation/goodpractices.html#test-collection) -- [NumPy testing guidelines](https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/testing.html) -- [Property-based testing with Hypothesis](https://hypothesis.readthedocs.io/) diff --git a/scripts/docs_check.py b/scripts/docs_check.py index b90ba31..2eeeaaa 100644 --- a/scripts/docs_check.py +++ b/scripts/docs_check.py @@ -176,7 +176,19 @@ def check_file_references(report: Report): # Known historical references that are intentionally kept in docs # (files that were removed as part of a migration/cleanup) - known_removed = {"cw_extractor.py", "fitter.py", "test_cw_extractor.py"} + known_removed = { + "cw_extractor.py", + "fitter.py", + "test_cw_extractor.py", + "detector_response.py", + "shape_factor_gA.py", + "exp_data", + "fitter", + "analyze_raw.py", + "exp_calibration.ipynb", + "exp_cli.py", + "recoil.py", + } # Placeholder examples used in documentation known_placeholders = {"foo.py", "test_foo.py"} @@ -258,22 +270,6 @@ def check_cli_commands(report: Report): except (subprocess.TimeoutExpired, FileNotFoundError): report.add("WARN", "AGENTS.md", "cli", "bs_pnpi not found in PATH") - # Check bs_exp CLI - if "bs_exp" in agents_md: - try: - result = subprocess.run( - ["bs_exp", "--help"], capture_output=True, text=True, timeout=10 - ) - if result.returncode != 0: - report.add( - "WARN", - "AGENTS.md", - "cli", - f"`bs_exp --help` failed: {result.stderr.strip()[:100]}", - ) - except (subprocess.TimeoutExpired, FileNotFoundError): - report.add("WARN", "AGENTS.md", "cli", "bs_exp not found in PATH") - def check_imports_in_examples(report: Report): """Check that import statements in README examples are valid."""